Instance-level phenotype-based growth stage classification of basil in multi-plant environments

Abstract

Climate change, shrinking arable land, urbanization, and labor shortages increasingly threaten stable crop production, attracting growing attention toward AI-based indoor farming technologies. Accurate growth stage classification is essential for nutrient management, harvest scheduling, and quality improvement; however, conventional studies rely on time-based criteria, which do not adequately capture physiological changes and lack reproducibility. This study proposes a phenotyping-based and physiologically grounded growth stage classification pipeline for basil. Among various morphological traits, the number of leaf pairs emerging from the shoot apex was identified as a robust indicator, as it can be consistently observed regardless of environmental variations or leaf overlap. This trait enables non-destructive, real-time monitoring using only low-cost fixed cameras. The research employed top-view images captured under various artificial lighting conditions across seven growth chambers. YOLO automatically detected multiple plants, followed by K-means clustering to align positions and generate an individual dataset of crop images–leaf pairs. A regression model was then trained to predict leaf pair counts, which were subsequently converted into growth stages. Experimental results demonstrated that the YOLO model achieved high detection accuracy with mAP@0.5 = 0.995, while the A convolutional neural network regression model reached MAE of 0.13 and R² of 0.96 for leaf pair prediction. Final growth stage classification accuracy exceeded 98%, maintaining consistent performance in cross-validation. In conclusion, the proposed pipeline enables automated and precise growth monitoring in multi-plant environments such as plant factories. By relying on low-cost equipment, the pipeline provides a technological foundation for precision environmental control, labor reduction, and sustainable smart agriculture.

Code and data availability

The supplied blocks describe a basil growth-stage phenotyping pipeline (8,519 top-view images, YOLOv8 detection, CNN regression) but contain no data availability statement, no public dataset or code deposit, and no author-provided repository URL. The only URL present is a generic Ultralytics documentation link in the (

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