Premise Herbarium specimens are increasingly used to extract morphological traits for ecological and evolutionary studies, yet the effects of tissue desiccation on trait measurements remain poorly understood. Here, we tested two hypotheses: (H1) whether higher tissue water content leads to greater measurement changes after herborization and (H2) whether fresh trait values can be reliably predicted from measurements of herborized specimens. Methods We evaluated the reliability of herbarium-based measurements by comparing fresh and dried traits of leaves, flowers, fleshy fruits, and seeds across 262 individuals representing 133 Neotropical Myrtaceae species. Phylogenetic least squares models and machine learning regressions were used to test H1 and H2. Results Leaves and flowers generally shrank after herborization, fruits size metrics tended to increase, and seeds were largely unaffected. Water content was significantly associated with the magnitude of herborization effects in flowers and some leaf and seed traits. Fresh trait values were accurately predicted from measurements of herborized specimens. Prediction errors were lowest for leaf traits, followed by fruits, flowers, and seeds. Discussion These results partially support H1 and support H2, indicating that herborized specimens can be reliably used for trait analyses when organ-specific responses are considered, providing a practical framework to account for potential desiccation bias in functional trait research.
Reproduction assets foundThe paper's trait measurements (Appendix S6 species mean data) and analysis code are openly available in the authors' GitHub repository, explicitly stated in the Data Availability Statement.Code · publice also acknowledge the Sociedade Botânica do Brasil (SBB) for financial support through the Scientia Amabilis 2024 grant.
DATA AVAILABILITY STATEMENT
The data supporting the findings of this study are available in the Supporting Information of this article (Appendix S6 ). Additionally, all data and code are openly accessible at https://github.com/ykilsztajn/fresh_dry_myrtaceae .
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AguiOpen asset ↗ykilsztajn/fresh_dry_myrtaceaelines:268-513Plant phenotyping relevance matchCrossref · checked 17 Sept 2026
Published15 Sept 2026Black Sea Journal of Agriculture
Leaf area (LA) is one of the most important morphological traits for the assessment of plant growth, biomass production and physiological performance. For forage crops, rapid, accurate and non-destructive methods of LA estimation are particularly important to allow repeated measurements throughout the growing season. The aim of this study was to compare the leaf area estimation of sainfoin (Onobrychis viciifolia Scop.) by four regression models (linear, logarithmic, polynomial and multiple linear regression) based on simple plant morphological measurements. Ninety sainfoin plants were evaluated at the flowering stage under controlled conditions. Plant height and canopy width were measured manually and actual leaf area was measured with a LI-COR LI-3100C Leaf Area Meter. Regression analyses were performed using SPSS software to construct prediction models and compare the performance of the models. Of the models tested, the multiple linear regression model had the highest prediction accuracy (R²=0.981), which was significantly better than the polynomial (R²=0.413), linear (R²=0.399) and logarithmic (R²=0.361) models. The results demonstrated that the combination of plant height and canopy width greatly improved the leaf area estimation over the use of a single predictor. The predictive performance of simple regression models was low. Multiple linear regression was a reliable, rapid and non-destructive method to estimate the leaf area of sainfoin. These results pave the way for practical morphological models that could assist plant growth monitoring and agronomic studies while limiting the number of destructive samplings.
Traditional weight measurement methods need cutting or weighing of the fruit, and this is not practical for preharvest evaluation and market transactions. The suggested approach gives a practical solution for farmers and sellers by giving accurate weight predictions using only external characteristics. Modern technologies, especially artificial intelligence, data analytics and machine learning, are making big changes in the agricultural area. One of the machine learning models used in agriculture is Artificial Neural Networks (ANN). ANN became an important tool in analyzing agricultural data, predicting plant growth processes, finding diseases, determining the effects of environmental factors, reaching productivity goals and detecting weeds and harmful plants. A dataset is created by comprehensively examining 52 watermelons. The dataset includes acoustic properties, geometric measurements, and visual characteristics. The dataset is divided into 40 training samples and 12 test samples. Balanced representation is ensured by using stratified sampling when selecting test samples. The Min-Max normalization method is used for data preprocessing. Nine different training algorithms are comprehensively evaluated within the scope of the study. Eight critical parameters of the ANN models are optimized using four different optimization algorithms to increase the accuracy rate and avoid overfitting. Artificial Bee Colony (ABC), Artificial Fish Swarm Algorithm (AFSA), Whale Optimization Algorithm (WOA) and Grey Wolf Optimizer (GWO) are used as optimization methods. Assessed by five-fold cross-validation, the best configuration (One Step Secant with WOA) achieved a mean absolute error of 0.92 ± 0.28 kg and an RMSE of 1.23 ± 0.37 kg, corresponding to about 10% of the mean fruit weight. Developing a real-time mobile application using the optimized best model will provide practicality in large-scale agricultural enterprises, controlled environments such as greenhouses, and agricultural markets.
PotatoField / plotPhysiological trait estimationGrowth / time-series analysisBiomass / plant weightGrowth / development / phenologyWater status / transpiration
Real-time measurement of belowground tuber growth has not been conducted in field crops. Here, a strain-gauge sensor was used to monitor the growth of a single potato tuber and estimate its daily water loss. Over the 11 days preceding harvest, tuber thickness increased by 0.80 mm, corresponding to a daily gain of 1.4 g, or a 4.2% increase. The greatest diurnal fluctuation was 0.439 mm, corresponding to a transpirational water loss of 9.1 mL, or 2.9% of the tuber’s water content. Daily estimated transpiration showed a positive correlation with estimated vapor pressure deficit. This sensor may enable more precise input control and higher temporal resolution than current methods for below-ground crops, supporting improved crop management, yield prediction, and harvest decisions.
This study aimed to evaluate the growth responses of kenaf (Hibiscus cannabinus L.) under nitrogen and compost treatments and to develop a UAV-based plant height estimation model. Ground-measured plant height differences were not significant at harvest (110 days after sowing, DAS), highlighting the need for multitemporal monitoring. Multispectral drone imagery was acquired at five growth stages (20–110 DAS). Object-based image segmentation was applied to extract pure vegetation areas, and digital surface model differencing (ΔDSMt) was used to reduce micro-topographic effects. A UAV-based multiple linear regression (UAV-MLR) model was developed using ΔDSMt, NDVI, GNDVI, and NGRDI to integrate complementary structural and spectral information. Evaluated on the calibration dataset, the UAV-MLR model demonstrated high fitting performance (adjusted R2 = 0.9858, RMSE = 14.95 cm, MAE = 11.31 cm), outperforming the ground-based simple linear regression (G-SLR) model based on stem diameter (adjusted R2 = 0.9615, RMSE = 39.68 cm, MAE = 29.16 cm). By integrating structural and spectral information, the proposed approach reduced RMSE by 62.3%, offering a highly accurate, non-destructive tool for crop monitoring and precision agriculture.
Leaves of terrestrial plants possess heterogeneous anatomical structures composed of multiple cell layers. Although biochemical differences among leaf tissues have been inferred from protein analyses and anatomical studies, direct comparisons of dynamic photochemical responses among tissues while preserving their spatial context remain challenging. Leaves experience intrinsically heterogeneous environments because incident light enters primarily from above and propagates through complex internal leaf structures. Therefore, analyzing photosynthetic activity at the tissue and cellular levels is essential for understanding how photosynthesis operates within structurally heterogeneous leaves. Here, we combined live leaf-section imaging with microscopic Imaging-PAM chlorophyll fluorescence measurements to analyze photochemical responses at the tissue level in living leaf sections. In dorsiventral dicot leaves, palisade tissues exhibited a higher effective PSII quantum yield [Y(II)] and more rapid induction of regulated energy dissipation [Y(NPQ)] than spongy tissues, indicating higher photosynthetic capacity and photoprotective activity. In contrast, rice leaves, which lack palisade-spongy differentiation, showed uniform photochemical responses along the adaxial-abaxial axis. In the C4 plant finger millet, mesophyll and bundle sheath cells displayed distinct photochemical responses consistent with their functional differentiation in C4 photosynthesis. These results demonstrate that photosynthetic responses are spatially organized according to leaf anatomical structure. Although section-based measurements do not reproduce the native optical and gas environments of intact leaves, they enable the comparison of intrinsic tissue-specific photochemical properties under approximately equivalent illumination. The present approach enables tissue-resolved chlorophyll fluorescence analysis in living leaves, providing a new framework for investigating how leaf architecture shapes the spatial organization of photosynthetic activity.
This study presents a systematic quantitative multi-elemental investigation of four major plant organs (roots, stems, leaves, and flowers) of Nerium oleander using calibration-based Laser-Induced Breakdown Spectroscopy (LIBS), with the results validated by Atomic Absorption Spectroscopy (AAS). Plasma characterization was carried out using Boltzmann plot and Stark broadening analyses, while negligible self-absorption observed through the Hα emission line confirmed optically thin plasma conditions and reliable quantitative measurements. A total of nine elements were detected, including Fe, Zn, Mn, Ca, Mg, K, Na, Cu, and Ni, each exhibiting different concentration levels across the analyzed tissues. Compositional analysis using standard calibration curve-based LIBS demonstrated that elemental concentrations were non-uniform, showing marked variations between the different plant tissues. Among the detected elements, calcium emerged as the most prevalent across all tissues. The highest calcium concentration was observed in leaves (16,385 mg L-1), followed by roots (12,092 mg L-1) and flowers (11,185 mg L-1). Root tissues exhibited elevated concentrations of Fe and Mn, reaching 1918 and 513 mg L-1, respectively. In contrast, flowers showed the highest Mn concentration (1888 mg L-1), while leaves were enriched in Mg (4445 mg L-1) and K (3700 mg L-1). The highest Na concentration was observed in stems (8025 mg L-1). Trace metals, including Cu, Zn, and Ni, were detected at comparatively low concentrations, while Pb remained undetected in all samples. The strong agreement between LIBS and AAS measurements confirms the reliability of the proposed methodology and demonstrates the potential of LIBS as a rapid and non-destructive tool for elemental assessment of medicinal plants.
Many labor-intensive tasks in fruit production such as pruning require physically interacting with the plant (e.g., pushing, pulling, bending limbs, etc.). Due to increasing labor shortages, there is widespread interest in the adoption of robotics in this area. When the robot must physically interact with the system, a deformable model of the plant is beneficial. Coupled, spring-loaded beams have been used in prior work to build deformable plant models in simulation for learning, planning, and control, but this approach has rarely been validated against the mechanical properties of real-world plants. In this paper, we use this rigid-body model, grounded in real material properties and beam bending theory, to simulate the deformation of blueberry canes under loading. To validate the model, we simulate the canes in MuJoCo and compare their behavior with real-world data collected from probing canes at a commercial farm with a custom testbed. We perform sensitivity analysis on several key modeling variables and show that this approach is highly sensitive to the plant diameter calculations and a priori flexural modulus estimation, which is dependent on season and blueberry variety. We also share our dataset of live blueberry cane deformation, including RGB-D images and measured forces and displacements.
Reproduction assets foundThe paper shares its in-field blueberry cane deformation dataset (RGB-D images, measured forces and displacements) via a figshare link provided in a footnote. Other allowed URLs (CloudCompare, SALib references) are generic tools/citations, not paper-specific assets.Dataset · publicionally, we performed sensitivity analysis on several modeling variables to identify potential significant sources of error.
In summary, the contributions of this paper are:
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A dataset capturing live blueberry cane deformation (visual deformation under load, plus measured forces and displacements) 1 1
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Data can be accessed at https://figshare.com/s/f82e41c7115187e42df8 .
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Evaluation of the physics model against real-world data collected from a commercial blueberry farm with a custom testbed.
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Sensitivity analysis of several variables for lumped-parameter rigid-body models.
This paper explores the impact of season, age, and variety on the flexural modulus of blueberry plants, and its impaOpen asset ↗figsharelines:63-82Plant phenotyping relevance matchOpenAlex · checked 16 Sept 2026
Abstract Developmental progression in plants is inherently a time-to-event process, yet plant phenology data are often analyzed as ordinary endpoint traits even when some individuals fail to reach the target stage within the observation window. Such observations are right-censored rather than missing and should be retained in inference. Here, we evaluated 21 soybean cultivars across 10 controlled-environment treatment combinations varying in CO 2 concentration, photoperiod, and LED light quality, and analyzed days from sowing to the R6 stage using a practical workflow that combined Kaplan-Meier survival analysis with a Bayesian Weibull accelerated failure time (AFT) model. Based on 210 cultivar × treatment observations derived from 1,050 plants, treatments resolved into favorable, intermediate, and strongly inhibitory classes. Elevated CO 2 showed the strongest association with reproductive timing: increasing CO 2 from ambient to 1000–1400 ppm reduced median survival time, while the additional gain from 1000 ppm to 1400 ppm was minimal, indicating a saturating response. Blue - Red spectral treatments and 6–8 h photoperiods were associated with rapid and synchronized development within the tested treatment combinations. The Bayesian AFT model included treatment as a random effect to account for the chamber-level experimental structure; the between-treatment standard deviation was estimated at 0.02 (95% credible interval: 0.00–0.06), indicating negligible chamber-to-chamber variation. The highest-ranked predicted combination (1400 ppm, blue: red = 2:1, 6 h) gave a median time to R6 of 66.90 d (mean 72.18 d). This study provides a practical and transferable workflow for censored plant phenology datasets in controlled-environment research, phenotyping, and breeding. The workflow integrates established survival analysis methods and explicitly accounts for chamber-level design, offering a framework for structured plant phenotyping experiments.
Soil contamination represents a growing environmental concern, particularly in areas such as the "Land of Fires" (Campania region, Italy). This study evaluates the potential of Zea mays L. as a bioindicator of soil contamination through a multiscale approach. In bin-like containers under natural conditions, maize plants were grown on untreated (C) and artificially contaminated (T) soil with a mixture of heavy metals (Pb, Zn, Cr) and benzo[a]pyrene. Analyses were conducted at leaf, canopy, and field scales, integrating eco-physiological, spectral, and UAV measurements. At the leaf level, contamination induced functional alterations in photochemical and spectral traits that were strongly dependent on the growth stage, being most pronounced early in the season and progressively attenuating thereafter. At the canopy level, contaminated plants developed less height and leaf area, together with lower chlorophyll- and canopy-density-sensitive spectral indices, consistent with reduced vegetative vigor under contamination stress. Solar Induced Fluorescence (SIF) showed no residual difference between treatments once normalized for biomass production at the end of the growing season, in agreement with leaf-level active fluorescence measurements taken on the same date. At the field scale, UAV-based classification achieved superior performance with hyperspectral relative to multispectral data in distinguishing contaminated areas. Taken together, these results show that, under the experimental exposure conditions adopted here, the detectability of soil pollution by maize progressively shifts from early, transient physiological signals to persistent structural differences, while UAV hyperspectral data provided the highest discrimination between treatments. By tracking how leaf-level functional alterations translate into canopy- and field-scale structural separability, this study provides a scale-explicit assessment of maize as a promising bioindicator of soil contamination.
Volatile organic compounds (VOCs) released by plant leaves play key roles in stress signaling, plant-atmosphere interactions, and plant defense. Among these, wound-induced VOCs (wVOCs) are emitted within seconds of mechanical damage, herbivory, or environmental disturbance. Their emission dynamics depend strongly on the timing, severity, and method of tissue disruption. Yet, accurate quantification remains challenging due to mechanical artifacts, variable exposure conditions, and delays between injury and measurement. This study presents a standardized within-chamber leaf excision protocol for real-time monitoring of wVOCs and gas exchange. A surgical-grade cutter was integrated into a portable gas-exchange chamber to enable clean, controlled cuts within a sealed chamber under stable light, humidity, CO2, and temperature conditions. A proton-transfer-reaction time-of-flight mass spectrometer (PTR-TOF-MS) continuously measured volatile emissions at the chamber outlet, minimizing delay and signal distortion. This setup resolves emission onset, peak timing, maximum rise rate, and total release with high temporal fidelity. Application of the method to Quercus rubra, Acer platanoides, and Gossypium hirsutum demonstrated its ability to resolve distinct wound-induced emission patterns across contrasting leaf types. By eliminating delays associated with conventional sampling, this method resolves the full kinetic trajectory of wound-induced emissions and overcomes major limitations of previous approaches. It provides a robust framework for studying rapid stress responses in plant physiology, ecological biochemistry, and plant-atmosphere interactions.
Zea mays (maize) is a critical global crop, generating more than 1 billion metric tons of grain annually. Plant morphology is tightly associated with final yield and is determined by the process of development. Accurate assessment and recording of mature plant morphology is essential for linking genotype to phenotype and for assessing environmental influences on plant development and yield. In maize, imaging of fully emerged aerial organs provides an accessible and informative developmental end point for comparative phenotypic analyses. Here, we provide a protocol for capturing high-quality images of mature maize plants and detached leaf blades, suitable for publication and downstream quantitative trait extraction. We emphasize standardized imaging conditions, including high-contrast backgrounds, diffuse lighting, fixed camera positioning, and consistent scale calibration, to minimize technical variation and to facilitate automated image processing. Guidance is provided for both laboratory- and field-based imaging setups and uses widely available equipment. Images generated using this protocol can be analyzed using platforms such as FIJI to extract morphometric traits, including length, width, and outline-based shape descriptors. By prioritizing standardization at the point of acquisition, this protocol supports reproducible, scalable phenotyping of mature maize morphology for developmental studies in maize.
The final morphology of a plant is determined by much earlier events that occur during development. Meristems are critical for the development of the aerial parts of plants, such as leaves and stems. The morphology of these meristems, which can vary significantly across genetic backgrounds, correlates with phenotypic traits in Zea mays (maize) that influence yield, such as leaf initiation rate and kernel row number. Traditional methods for morphological analysis of meristems, including histological sectioning and fine dissection, often require considerable technical expertise. To address these challenges, we present a detailed protocol employing methyl-salicylate for tissue clearing, combined with Differential Interference Contrast (DIC) microscopy to visualize maize shoot apical meristems. This method enables the intact visualization of vegetative meristems without the need for extensive dissection, thereby preserving the natural morphology of the meristem. Using this approach, the meristem is coarsely dissected, fixed, optionally stained, and cleared to enable visualization through leaf layers. By improving the accessibility and quality of meristem imaging, this protocol facilitates accurate quantification of meristem morphology, critical for genetic and developmental studies. Optimized primarily for maize, the outlined techniques can also be adapted for other plant species, providing a versatile tool in the field of plant developmental biology.
Abstract Background Root architecture determines the capacity of crops for spatial exploration under stress conditions; however, existing studies on salt tolerance screening have mostly been confined to single traits such as root length or biomass, overlooking the overall spatial configuration of the root system and its intrinsic linkage with aboveground physiological functions. On this basis, the present study aimed to determine whether root convex hull area can characterize root–shoot synergistic adaptability under salt stress, and whether this synergy involves a physiological mechanism of resource conservation through cortical tissue remodeling. Methods Using a paper-based root phenotyping platform, we screened 28 spring wheat varieties originating from the arid regions of northwest China under 200 mM NaCl stress, and compared the differences between large-convex hull area and small-convex hull area varieties in root architecture, root cortical anatomy, stomatal traits, leaf water status, photosystem II efficiency, canopy temperature, and transpiration rate under salt stress. Results The results showed that large-convex hull area varieties maintained total root length, maximum depth, and convex hull area under salt stress, whereas small-convex hull area varieties exhibited significant reductions in all these parameters. Meanwhile, compared with small-convex hull area varieties, large-convex hull area varieties possessed greater cortical lacunar tissue area and cortex/stele ratio, as well as higher stomatal density, leaf relative water content, F v/ F m, and transpiration rate, but lower canopy temperature and smaller stomatal aperture. Convex hull area was positively correlated with leaf water status, photochemical efficiency, cortical lacunar area, and stomatal density, while negatively correlated with canopy temperature and stomatal aperture, indicating that root spatial maintenance, moderate cortical senescence, and stomatal regulation together constitute a functionally coordinated response module under salt stress. Conclusion In summary, convex hull area is not merely a descriptive indicator of root morphology, but rather a functional trait that reflects the synergistic integration of belowground exploration capacity and aboveground physiological resilience. This study proposes that convex hull area can serve as a candidate high-throughput phenotypic indicator for salt tolerance screening in wheat at the seedling stage; nevertheless, its predictive capacity for field yield performance still requires further validation under soil conditions, across the full growth cycle, and under interactions with multiple environmental factors.
Background and aims Recognizing lineages is a central challenge in plant systematics, making it essential to explore multiple analytical tools. In this context, this study investigates how frond shape can assist in discriminating against lineages within the Scaly clade of Microgramma (Polypodiaceae), and tests whether the integration of multiple lines of evidence enables a more consistent recognition of lineages than exclusively macromorphological approaches. Methods We analyzed 271 specimens representing eight species, using Elliptical Fourier Analysis (EFA) to quantify frond shape, followed by multivariate statistical tests (PCA, MANOVA, LDA). Evolutionary relationships between spectral and morphometric data were assessed through phylogenetic generalized least squares (PGLS) regressions and phylogenetic partial least squares (Phylo-PLS) analyses. Results Dimorphic species exhibited higher discrimination capacity (average accuracy of 80-83%). Fertile and combined fronds yielded the highest accuracy values. Morphologically similar species, such as M. reptans and M. tobagensis, showed considerable overlap, whereas M. percussa achieved the best performance (average accuracy of 80%). Morphometric-spectral covariation yielded R2 = 0.72 (P = 0.003) when sterile and fertile fronds were combined, although PGLS analyses detected no significant phylogenetic signal. The association differed between frond types and is interpreted here as exploratory evidence of morpho-spectral covariation. Conclusions Outline morphometry combined with infrared spectroscopy within a phylogenetic framework improves lineage discrimination, although overlap zones persist, reflecting complex evolutionary processes. Our study highlights the potential of integrative systematics to elucidate species boundaries in groups with high morphological disparity, as well as the need for broad sampling and multi-evidence approaches in future systematic reviews.
Abstract Accurate estimation of maize leaf nitrogen content is important for improving nitrogen-use efficiency and supporting precision crop management. However, leaf-level hyperspectral modeling is challenged by high spectral redundancy and heterogeneous spectral responses among local leaf regions. This study proposes a Hyperspectral–Region Aggregation Network (HSRAN) for maize leaf nitrogen content estimation from region-level hyperspectral spectra. HSRAN consists of a Spectral Adaptive Recalibration Encoder (SARE) and a Context-Aware Gated Aggregation Module (CAGM). SARE performs band-wise residual recalibration and extracts regional spectral representations, whereas CAGM models contextual dependencies among regional features and performs gated attention-based aggregation for leaf-level prediction. Field experiments were conducted in 2024 and 2025 at the jointing, silking, and maturity stages. HSRAN was evaluated against PLSR, RF, XGBoost, SVR, 1D-CNN, MLP, and Transformer1D models. Across the stage-specific and pooled datasets, HSRAN achieved the highest R² and the lowest RMSE while maintaining competitive MAE values. On the pooled full-growth-period dataset, HSRAN achieved an R² of 0.84, an RMSE of 3.63 g kg⁻¹, and an MAE of 2.59 g kg⁻¹. At the jointing, silking, and maturity stages, the corresponding R² values were 0.56, 0.76, and 0.72, respectively. Ablation experiments indicated that integrating SARE and CAGM improved R² from 0.80 to 0.84. To interpret regional contributions, the learned attention weights were mapped back to the original leaf coordinates recorded during regional sampling. Regions near leaf veins, tips, and margins often received relatively higher attention weights, suggesting that their local spectra provided informative cues for model prediction. These findings indicate that spectral–regional joint modeling can improve leaf-level hyperspectral estimation of maize nitrogen content. HSRAN provides a practical framework for non-destructive nitrogen assessment in maize.
Doolan O, Peirats-Llobet M, Lewsey MG, Aberdein N, Bricklebank N.
BarleySeed / grain
Quantitative imaging of plant tissues by laser ablation inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (LA-ICP-MS) is hindered by the lack of matrix-matched calibration standards. Established approaches, such as gelatine or homogenised tissue blocks, do not replicate plant matrices accurately. Here, we introduce a nano-dispenser-based calibration strategy that deposits nanolitre volumes of elemental standards directly onto paraffin-embedded grain sections, exploiting the low endogenous metal content of the endosperm to generate in situ calibration curves. Calibration performance for Mg, Mn, Cu, Zn, and Mo was assessed using LA-ICP-MS imaging and Iolite 4 data processing. The method demonstrated excellent linearity (R 2 > 0.98), reproducibility across multiple grains, and sub-ppm limits of detection. Comparative analysis with in-house homogenised blocks and NIST wheat reference material confirmed superior accuracy and reproducibility of the nano-dispenser approach. As a proof-of-concept, we have applied the method for the quantitative imaging of metals in a whole barley grain section, and the results show excellent agreement with published data obtained by conventional liquid-mode ICP MS. The technique reported here provides a robust, scalable, solution for quantitative metallomics studies of plant tissues, enabling improved assessment of nutrient distribution and supporting the development of standardised protocols for LA-ICP-MS imaging.
Medicinal plants are critical sources of bioactive materials, yet efficient field-scale monitoring of their growth responses to water and nitrogen management remains limited. The present work evaluated Unmanned Aerial Vehicle (UAV) multispectral sensing for estimating leaf area index (LAI), underground fresh weight (UFW), aboveground fresh weight (AFW), underground dry weight (UDW), and aboveground dry weight (ADW) in Astragalus membranaceus var. mongholicus (Bunge) P.K.Hsiao ( A. membranaceus ) under 15 irrigation-nitrogen treatments spanning irrigation inputs of 15.0-30.0 mm per event and nitrogen application rates of 0–450 kg N ha⁻¹. UAV imagery and ground measurements were acquired from 45 plots at 60, 75, 90, 105, 120, and 135 days after sowing (DAS). Thirty-seven vegetation indices (VIs) were screened, and random forest (RF), support vector machine (SVM), back-propagation neural network (BP), genetic algorithm-optimized BP neural network (GA-BP), and decision-level fusion (DLF) models were evaluated with repeated random partitions. Growth responses were trait-dependent. W1N5 reached the peak final LAI (1.96), whereas W2N2 achieved the maximum UFW, AFW, UDW, and ADW (4363.94, 7406.00, 1354.50, and 2596.51 kg ha⁻¹, respectively). VI-trait associations changed with growth stage. GNDVI correlated most closely with LAI at 75 DAS (r = 0.78), and biomass-model performance was stronger during 90–120 DAS than at 60 DAS. DLF was retained in 24 of the 30 stage-specific models. In whole-season modeling, LAI was best estimated by BNDVI input with BP (R 2 = 0.96; RMSE = 0.01), whereas UDW was best estimated by DVI input with DLF (R 2 = 0.93; RMSE = 0.39). Stage-adaptive feature selection increased R 2 by up to 38.60%. Overall, the results indicate that UAV multispectral sensing, stage-adaptive VI screening, and ensemble learning provide a practical framework for monitoring A. membranaceus growth and supporting precision irrigation-nitrogen management in medicinal plant production.
Water scarcity and increasingly irregular rainfall threaten avocado production in Mediterranean regions, yet the long term physiological responses of mature trees to sustained deficit irrigation remain poorly understood. We conducted a two-year field study integrating continuous monitoring of the soil plant atmosphere continuum, drone-based multispectral imaging, canopy structural analysis, and fruit phenotyping in a mature avocado orchard subjected to three irrigation regimes. The two study years differed markedly in rainfall, providing a unique opportunity to evaluate how environmental conditions modulate tree responses to water limitation. Trees under severe deficit irrigation showed depletion of water in deeper soil layers and a flattened physiological profile, with near-zero diel variation in leaf thickness and trunk water potential, indicating minimal transpiration and decoupling of tree water status from environmental demand. Drone telemetry via NDVI detected stress during fruit growth and maturation, but not during flowering or the new summer leaf flush, revealing greater drought sensitivity at later maturation stages. Although canopy area did not differ among irrigation treatments, canopy surface roughness increased significantly under deficit irrigation, thereby identifying a novel structural indicator of drought stress. Despite large physiological differences among treatments, fruit number remained stable, while fruit weight decreased significantly under severe deficit irrigation, particularly in the wetter year, suggesting that annual rainfall modulates the trade-off between fruit retention and fruit growth. This study provides the first continuous, multi-scale characterization of avocado performance under sustained deficit irrigation in Mediterranean conditions. By integrating plant-based sensors, remote sensing, and artificial intelligence, we reveal previously undescribed stress dynamics and identify new indicators for precision irrigation management in fruit crops.
Leaf hyperspectral reflectance can provide a scalable way to estimate photosynthetic capacity (Vcmax), but models trained in one species or measurement context often lose accuracy in another. This transfer problem limits the use of spectral approaches in multi-species crop phenotyping and carbon-cycle applications. Here, we tested physiology-informed inputs for leaf-level Vcmax25 retrieval using paired gas-exchange and reflectance data from wheat (C₃; n = 198) and maize (C₄; n = 81) grown under contrasting nitrogen supply. The four input configurations were raw spectra (Mod1), spectra scaled by a PPFD–absorptance proxy (Mod2), scaled spectra augmented with radiative-transfer-derived traits (Mod3), and scaled spectra augmented with a spectral coordination proxy (Mod4). Within datasets, the best models reached R² = 0.82 in wheat, 0.41 in maize, and 0.76 in the combined dataset. In a matched comparison with a common random-forest learner, the spectral coordination proxy Mod4 improved accuracy only slightly over Mod2 in wheat (RMSE −0.51%; p = 0.0058) and maize (RMSE −1.26%; p = 0.0011) but not in the combined dataset (RMSE −0.15%; p = 0.074), and the trait-based Mod3 showed no consistent benefit. When wheat models were tested on measurement dates not used in training, accuracy remained moderate (R² = 0.563; RMSE = 15.07 µmol m⁻² s⁻¹). Despite this within-dataset performance, models applied to the other species without calibration failed in both directions (negative R²), and adding source-species data did not improve prediction even when a few samples of the new species were used for calibration. These results show that physiology-informed input design provides at most small within-dataset gains, and that reliable prediction across C₃ and C₄ crops requires calibration data from the target crop.
Key message Yield-Graph enables accurate maize yield prediction from incomplete multi-stage phenotypic and environmental data by modeling higher-order environment-trait interactions, with robust applicability across growth stages, regions, and crop species. Accurate yield prediction before maize harvest is crucial for advancing agricultural management and ensuring food security. Unlike conventional approaches that rely on traits from a single growth stage, this study models multiple traits across different developmental stages, all targeting final yield, thereby uncovering their stage-specific contributions and demonstrating the feasibility of early yield prediction. We introduce Yield-Graph, an innovative framework that evaluates phenotypic data at distinct developmental stages for yield prediction. The method employs a bipartite graph structure to impute missing trait values at each stage and leverages a hypergraph attention mechanism to capture high-order sample relationships. Comprehensive benchmark experiments demonstrate that Yield-Graph matches the top-tier predictive accuracy of exhaustively optimized tree models. Moreover, the framework exhibits strong robustness across growth stages, high adaptability to regional variations, and effective generalization across datasets. These findings highlight the potential of graph-enhanced multi-stage modeling for early-stage yield prediction, offering a scalable solution for precision agriculture and intelligent crop management.
LiDAR / point cloudFlowerArchitecture / morphology / geometry
The mechanical dynamics of poricidal stamens play a crucial role in buzz pollination, but they have only been studied in a few species showing comparatively less curvature. This paper presents an integrated experimental-computational approach to characterize the dynamic behaviour of the morphologically more complex stamens of Medinilla magnifica. An experimental set-up employing a custom-built shaker and a laser triangulation sensor is developed to measure the stamen motion with high spatial and temporal resolution. The resulting displacement transmissibility reveals three distinct resonances, with the second one falling within the reported frequency range of pollination buzzes. Finite-element and multi-body models are developed and validated against experimental results. The models further reveal how the stamen morphology gives rise to its complex dynamic behaviour. The developed method enables precise parametric modelling of stamens and provides new insight into the mechanical basis of pollen release, thereby offering a framework for studying buzz pollination dynamics across plant taxa.
Whitefly-transmitted begomoviruses cause tomato leaf curl disease (ToLCD). In India, at least 15 begomoviruses are known to cause ToLCD, posing a major challenge to resistance breeding. Although several Ty resistance loci have been introgressed from wild tomato relatives, variable resistance responses are frequently observed, likely due to mixed infections and the absence of a standardized disease scoring system. Moreover, limited knowledge of the infecting begomoviruses in resistant genotypes has hindered the effective use of donor lines in breeding programs. This study evaluated 17 homozygous Ty-gene donor tomato genotypes under natural epiphytotic conditions and identified the associated begomoviruses. To quantify disease severity, a robust disease scoring system was developed using coefficient of infection (CI) by integrating symptom parameters- leaf curling, leaf smalling, stunting, and fruiting, with population-level disease incidence. Field evaluations for two years revealed that genotypes carrying both Ty-2 and Ty-3 loci showed higher resistance, though variability existed among them. Genotypes with Ty-3 alone or Ty-5 + Ty-6 combinations also displayed substantial tolerance, and five genotypes were identified as highly resistant. Molecular indexing revealed frequent mixed infections and identified multiple begomoviruses, including a newly characterized species, tomato leaf curl Ty Pusa virus, alongside tomato leaf curl New Delhi virus, tomato leaf curl Palampur virus, tomato leaf curl Gujarat virus, and tomato leaf curl Joydebpur virus. These findings highlight a shift in begomovirus predominance and possible recombination-driven emergence of new variants. This study provides an integrated framework for evaluating ToLCD resistance and emphasizes the need for continuous reassessment of resistance sources to ensure durable tomato cultivar development.
Year-to-year climate variability poses a challenge for agriculture by increasing crop yield variability; therefore, there is a need to identify genotypes that can withstand these fluctuations. With the right selection criteria, genotypes with yield stability across variable environmental conditions can be selected. Methods such as Finlay-Wilkinson random regression (FWRR) may allow us to use sparse datasets-common in plant breeding pipelines-and incorporate genomic data to leverage phenotypic information from related genotypes to predict yield stability. Our objective was to examine how the number of environments and the variance among those environments affect stability predictions. We also integrate FWRR as a genomic prediction tool for characterizing yield stability, comparing it to the traditional genomic prediction models as a reference. We used three datasets: one highly unbalanced dataset for oats (Avena sativa L.) and two completely balanced datasets with different numbers of environments for barley (Hordeum vulgare L.) and wheat (Triticum aestivum L.). We fit standard Finlay-Wilkinson (FW) and FWRR models to estimate grain yield and stability under various scenarios. We found that the estimated stability values obtained were similar using balanced datasets for FW or FWRR. FWRR also achieved moderate predictive ability for stability using unbalanced datasets under 10-fold cross-validation (CV1) with new genotypes. In terms of environmental representation, selecting the right set of environments for inclusion in the model was more important than adding more environments. Our results suggest the possibility of using FWRR to select stable genotypes earlier in line development, as well as to design resource-efficient stability-testing schemes.
Abstract Tree crowns are complex, three‐dimensional structures whose morphology varies among species, individuals and environments. Although light detection and ranging (LiDAR) provides high‐resolution, single‐tree point clouds that advance species discrimination and the assessment of intraspecific variation in situ, crown shape is still commonly reduced to low‐dimensional metrics (e.g. crown diameter or crown base height), losing much of its three‐dimensional geometric complexity. We introduce a fully 3D geometric morphometric framework that captures crown shape directly from LiDAR point clouds at both species and individual levels. Pre‐segmented LiDAR single‐tree point clouds of eight temperate forest species were converted into three‐dimensional shape representations using radial bounding volumes (RBVs), which partitioned each crown into a standardized set of vertical layers and radial sectors. Surface points automatically digitized from each RBV formed geospatially aligned, 3D pseudolandmark configurations representing geometric morphometric crown shapes. These configurations served as the input data for multivariate analyses of crown shape variation within and between species. Twelve structural traits, including crown and stem dimensions, were extracted from the same RBVs and integrated into analyses of trait–shape associations. The morphospace of crown shape was structured along different axes of variation in broadleaf species than in conifers. Within these groups, species pairs—such as Fagus versus Quercus and Picea versus Pinus —exhibited contrasting intraspecific morphological gradients, with different structural traits driving shape variation in each. Crown base height and total crown height emerged as the strongest predictors of crown shape. Differences in crown shape among species were primarily captured by symmetric components, with asymmetry providing a negligible signal. Interspecific differentiation was largely driven by architectural variation rather than pure size differences. Morphological differences derived from pseudolandmarks and convolutional neural network features exhibited stronger correlations in conifers than in broadleaf species. We present a reproducible, LiDAR‐native framework for quantifying and comparing 3D crown morphology within and across species. Using the RBV approach, geospatially aligned pseudolandmarks can be derived from any pre‐segmented, single‐tree LiDAR point cloud, enabling scalable, multi‐regional analyses of intraspecific variability. This framework provides a robust foundation for integrating crown shape into ecological, evolutionary, silvicultural and modelling studies, including assessments of environmental effects and architectural constraints.
Abstract Purpose Evaluate how soil and canopy sensing can map within-block variability in tart cherry orchards and identify indicators robust enough for repeatable management decisions. Methods Soil apparent electrical conductivity (ECa) was mapped in spring 2022 across four commercial tart cherry blocks (8.5–10.5 ha; approximately 3,500 trees per block), followed by canopy sensing in 2023–2024. Canopy structure was measured using unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV) photogrammetry and mobile terrestrial laser scanning (MTLS) using light detection and ranging (LiDAR), and canopy density using mobile ceptometry. Spatial layers were aligned to per-tree grid cells. An August 2025 campaign compared UAV- and LiDAR-derived tree height with ground-truthed height. Results Soil-to-canopy relationships were weak to moderate but consistent within blocks ( r = 0.10–0.40), with strength and direction varying by site conditions. Canopy density was more strongly associated with UAV-derived volume than height. UAV-derived 90th-percentile height best predicted ground-truthed height ( R ² = 0.89; RMSE = 0.34 m), whereas LiDAR showed a weaker relationship and greater error ( R ² = 0.70; RMSE = 0.52 m). Cross-sensor agreement was moderate to strong ( r = 0.41–0.65). Per-tree rankings were stable between years for UAV height and volume. Conclusion Whole-block sensing revealed persistent spatial patterns that could support management-zone delineation. UAV photogrammetry provided accurate canopy metrics, MTLS offered measurements suited to routine orchard operations, ceptometry added seasonal canopy-density information, and ECa provided soil context. Occasional ECa mapping combined with strategically timed UAV surveys and other sensors as needed could reduce redundant sensing while supporting fertilizer evaluation, pruning, and labor allocation.
Introduction Leaf shape is a genetically determined crop phenotype, and its accurate classification underpins soybean germplasm assessment and genetic improvement. Manual classification is highly subjective and struggles to distinguish morphologically similar leaves, while mainstream supervised classification demands large labeled datasets and incurs high development costs. Efficient feature frameworks for soybean leaf categorization are still insufficient. Methods In this study, 581 biologically replicated terminal leaflets sampled from 194 soybean varieties were analyzed at the single-leaflet level using traditional morphological indices and novel leaf contour angular features. Unsupervised K-means clustering was used to classify soybean leaflet morphological phenotypes; t-SNE was applied exclusively for dimensional reduction visualization, while Welch's ANOVA combined with Games-Howell post-hoc tests was adopted to detect inter-cluster phenotypic differences. Clustering stability and external consistency against manual visual labeling were further quantified via Adjusted Rand Index to comprehensively verify the reliability of grouping outputs. Results The results revealed no significant difference in leaflet edge complexity (p = 0.41) between two manually divided leaf groups distinguished by overall leaf outline similarity; these two morphologically similar leaf clusters failed to be fully separated even though the first two principal components accounted for 90.2% of total variance. For K-means clustering, k = 3 achieved better overall performance with a Calinski–Harabasz (CH) index of 395.55, Davies–Bouldin (DB) index of 1.03, and silhouette coefficient (SC) of 0.38, compared with k = 4. Nevertheless, the angular feature attained an F-value of 951.62 in driving sample reallocation across clusters, serving as the core indicator for fine subdivision at k = 4. Under k = 4 clustering, all six morphological indices differed significantly among the four groups (p < 0.05). Additionally, the number of cross-clustered samples increased from 66 to 119 as k rose from 3 to 4, with 96.6% of cross-clustering attributed to the leaflet contour angular feature. Discussion This research provides a novel reference and technical support for the automated identification and fine classification of soybean leaf morphology.
Faba bean yield reflects complex relationships among genotype, environment, and agronomic traits. This study evaluated an explainable Tabular Prior-data Fitted Network (TabPFN) framework for estimating plot-mean single-plant yield and prioritizing traits using 398 plot-level observations, 13 measured agronomic predictors, and six derived features. On the reference 80/20 split, TabPFN achieved the best values for all four test metrics (R2 = 0.8746, RMSE = 1.9132 g plant−1, MAE = 1.0819 g plant−1, and MAPE = 8.16%). The Friedman test detected differences among the six models (χ2(5) = 16.75, p = 0.005); Nemenyi comparisons distinguished TabPFN from HistGradientBoosting and SVR, whereas the Holm-corrected Wilcoxon analysis confirmed only the TabPFN–SVR difference. Across 10 repeated 80/20 splits, TabPFN obtained the highest mean test R2 (0.8614 ± 0.0691), ranked first in eight splits, and produced a higher R2 than every tuned baseline in at least eight splits. SHAP, permutation importance, and LOCO analyses emphasized pod-, seed-, and biomass-related predictors. Repeated-split ablation showed that derived features improved TabPFN consistently, whereas removing selected target-proximal yield variables reduced performance for every model. The framework is therefore a harvest-time trait-estimation and trait-prioritization tool rather than an early-season forecasting system. Notably, TabPFN achieved this performance without the 100-trial Optuna search used for each baseline; only n_estimators was screened over four prespecified values.
Accurate quantification of rice aboveground biomass (AGB) is critical for crop monitoring but remains challenging due to the complex nonlinearity arising from the coupling of plant density, spatial structure, and internal dry matter distribution. To address the limitations of single-source remote sensing, this study proposed a Three-Dimensional Dry Matter Distribution Integration (3D-DMI) model, which establishes a physically interpretable framework decomposing AGB into dry matter density ( ρ ), horizontal projection distribution ( S ), and vertical cumulative distribution ( h d ) components. Guided by this framework, a core subset of six features (Red_650, MTCI, G_correlation, R_correlation, LPI, and HPA0_99) was extracted from UAV-based multispectral, RGB, and LiDAR data using a dual-step feature selection approach combining Maximum Information Coefficient (MIC) and Distance Correlation (dCor). A Random Forest (RF) regression model was then developed to estimate AGB across the entire growth season. The results demonstrated that the 3D-DMI model achieved excellent performance with an R 2 of 0.920, an RMSE of 0.184 kg/m², and an RPD of 3.544, significantly outperforming any single-sensor approach. Single-feature analysis revealed that while LiDAR-derived structural features provided the fundamental basis for biomass estimation, they encountered inherent saturation bottlenecks during late growth stages. Feature contribution analysis based on SHAP further quantified that LiDAR-derived features dominated the estimation process (68.5% contribution), providing the volumetric basis, whereas RGB textures (18.3%) and multispectral features (13.3%) provided indispensable supplements. Ultimately, this study established a robust, physically grounded computational paradigm for high-precision UAV-based rice biomass monitoring across the entire growth cycle.
Raj Nirmal Rajendran · M. Timothy Rabanus‐Wallace · Jinghan Lu · Geoffrey B. Fincher · Caterina Selva · Matthew R. Tucker · James Hunt · David Moody · Mohammad Pourkheirandish
Structural failure of cereal stems during late-season climate extremes is a critical determinant of yield stability. In barley, breakage of the stem below the spike, known as head loss, leads to major yield losses, particularly in hot and dry regions where the crop is widely grown. Despite a predicted increase in head loss risk due to global warming, current understanding of the genetic, physiological, anatomical, and environmental factors that control head loss remains limited. Overcoming these knowledge gaps is essential to providing a systems-level strategy for barley breeders to develop climate-ready cultivars that are resilient to stem breakage and suitable for industry adoption. Here, we review present knowledge and highlight opportunities for innovation to mitigate head loss through interdisciplinary approaches that combine precise phenotyping through mechanical testing of stem strength and flexibility, high-throughput phenotyping through drone-based spike counting, and genetic modification strategies informed by studies on hormonal regulation and cell wall composition. Coupled with genotypic data, these efforts will enable the development of a genomic selection platform to facilitate future breeding programs. The framework and tools discussed here are broadly applicable to improving stem resilience in other cereal crops.
Adam Ziółkowski · Franciszek Błaś · Luiza Tymińska-Czabańska
Field / plotLiDAR / point cloudRootMorphology / geometry measurementRoot system architecture
Coarse root systems govern tree anchorage, yet remain among the least documented components of tree architecture: excavation is irreversible, and established 3D methods rely on specialist scanners and lengthy post-processing. We evaluated whether a consumer smartphone records exposed coarse root architecture metrically, and which traits agree most closely with manual measurement. Four fully exposed Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) root systems in northwestern Poland were scanned with an iPhone 17 Pro running Scaniverse, at about 30 min of acquisition and 5 h of processing per tree. Clouds were registered, cleaned and oriented to magnetic north in CloudCompare; of eight architectural metrics, four were validated against manual references at 95 cross-sections on 44 roots, and four were exploratory. Visible root length (root-mean-square error, RMSE, 22.2 cm, 8.4%), azimuth (RMSE 3.58°, mean absolute error 2.47°) and depth (RMSE 3.18 cm, 14.9%) agreed most closely with the reference; 70 of 77 first-order roots were detected with no false positives. Diameter was the weakest metric and the only one dependent on the operator (RMSE 0.46 and 0.29 cm for two operators on the same clouds). Smartphone LiDAR thus turns an irreversible excavation into a permanent, measurable record of the traits relevant to anchorage, provided that centimetre-level diameters are not required.
Introduction Accurate estimation of aboveground biomass (AGB) is essential for monitoring pasture productivity and supporting sustainable management of integrated crop–livestock (ICL) systems. We hypothesized that integrating multispectral, thermal, and canopy-structural information derived from unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) would improve AGB prediction relative to spectral information alone, and that Generalized Additive Models for Location, Scale and Shape (GAMLSS) would accommodate seasonal heteroscedasticity while maintaining predictive performance comparable to Random Forest (RF) and Support Vector Machine (SVM) models. Methods We collected 280 destructive biomass samples from two ICL paddocks and one continuously grazed pasture in the Brazilian Cerrado between 2022 and 2024. Twenty-four UAV-derived predictors, including spectral bands, vegetation indices, canopy surface temperature, and canopy height, were evaluated using repeated five-fold cross-validation. Model transferability was assessed by withholding one management paddock at a time. Results and discussion Under repeated five-fold cross-validation, GAMLSS achieved the lowest prediction error (R² = 0.69 ± 0.01; RMSE = 2.15 ± 0.04 Mg ha⁻¹), followed closely by SVM (R² = 0.68 ± 0.01; RMSE = 2.19 ± 0.03 Mg ha -1 ); RF showed lower accuracy (R 2 = 0.53 ± 0.01; RMSE = 2.63 ± 0.02 Mg ha -1 ). In the paddock-transferability assessment, GAMLSS also showed the lowest error (R 2 = 0.63 ± 0.04; RMSE = 2.34 ± 0.26 Mg ha -1 ). For GAMLSS, the complete multisensor configuration reduced RMSE by 6.2% compared with the spectral-only configuration. The selected model was used to generate spatially explicit maps of AGB and standing aboveground biomass carbon, estimated from the mean measured carbon concentration of forage biomass. Integrating multispectral, thermal, and structural UAV data with distributional regression improves AGB estimation and enables spatial monitoring of tropical pastures under contrasting management conditions.
To establish an accurate and interpretable prediction framework for soybean lodging grade and clarify the core regulatory traits and differentiated driving mechanisms of soybean lodging under high-density drip irrigation cultivation, 356 spring soybean germplasm accessions were used as experimental materials in this study. Morphological and mechanical traits including plant height (PH), stem pulling force (SPF), internode number (IN) and petiole length (PL) were measured over two consecutive years of field phenotyping. Two composite evaluation indices, plant height/stem pulling force ratio (PH/SPF) and plant height/internode number ratio (PH/IN), were further constructed. Four machine learning algorithms were adopted to develop multi-classification models for soybean lodging grade prediction. SHAP analysis combined with three global sensitivity approaches (perturbation analysis, Sobol’ method and Morris screening) was applied to decipher the regulatory patterns of key traits. The results showed that lodging grade significantly affected soybean grain yield and explained 25–28% of the phenotypic yield variation; yield reduction tended to plateau under severe lodging. Compared with single indicators such as SPF and PL, the two derived composite indices could stably distinguish soybean accessions with different lodging grades and exhibited stronger discriminatory power. Model comparison revealed that the XGBoost model achieved optimal prediction accuracy and generalization stability for lodging grade, with a weighted F1-score of 95.34% on the test set, significantly outperforming the conventional linear model. Interpretability analysis demonstrated that the PH/IN, PH, and PH/SPF acted as the primary positive traits promoting lodging, while SPF was the sole protective trait. Driving factors of lodging presented obvious gradient heterogeneity: mild lodging was dominated by the imbalance of plant architecture ratio, whereas severe lodging was governed by the cumulative effects of PH and IN. Strong interactions existed among all measured traits. The interpretable machine learning framework established in this study can provide theoretical support and technical references for lodging-resistant germplasm screening and targeted plant architecture regulation for densely planted soybean under drip irrigation systems.
Maize ( Zea mays L.) is a highly adaptable crop grown worldwide across diverse climates and management practices, with uses across multiple sectors. Consequently, the traits prioritized in maize research and breeding programs vary depending on the specific objectives. Core traits, however, such as flowering time, plant and ear height, and stalk and root lodging, which are important for evaluating and improving the performance and stability of maize genotypes, are routinely evaluated across breeding programs, regardless of their goals. Standardized measurement of these core traits is essential to ensure data reliability and comparability, enabling the integration of phenotypic data across different experiments. Such efforts ultimately support better decision-making and accelerate the development of improved maize genotypes. This is particularly important in public sector programs, where large-scale evaluations, critical for assessing the value of specific genotypes, are often only feasible through collaboration across programs. Here, we provide a protocol for the standardized collection of phenotypic data, specifically focusing on how to measure core traits in maize field trials. These methods promote consistency and accuracy in the evaluation of these traits, and support communication and coordination among groups in the public sector and other research settings. Further, such standardization facilitates the integration and comparison of data across programs, enabling robust longitudinal and multienvironment analyses.
Plant disease and plant stress early warning systems have advanced through deep learning, remote sensing, digital phenotyping, disease forecasting, and sensor networks. Detection accuracy, precision, recall, F1-score, and area under the curve remain indispensable, but they are insufficient for judging whether a warning can support timely and proportionate phytoprotection under field variability. This Mini Review argues that intelligent plant health warning systems should be evaluated not only as prediction models, but also as safety-relevant decision-support systems embedded in biological, agronomic, and operational contexts. We first relate AI-based detection to established plant disease forecasting and decision-support traditions, including weather-based models, epidemiological forecasting, and integrated disease management. We then adapt selected safety-assurance concepts, including risk assessment, failure mode and effects analysis, Bow-tie reasoning, warning-threshold governance, reliability analysis, resilience thinking, and response closure, to host-pathogen-environment warning chains. The proposed framework links AI or sensor outputs with pathogen biology, host susceptibility, environmental conduciveness, inoculum pressure, uncertainty assessment, risk classification, threshold decisions, human or automated verification, intervention, and feedback learning. Illustrative crop-pathogen scenarios, including wheat rust, rice blast, potato late blight, grapevine downy mildew, and citrus greening, show how safety assurance can complement existing forecasting and decision-support systems rather than replace them. The framework remains conceptual, and whether these added assurance functions improve existing warning systems requires comparative evaluation under field conditions. Future systems should be evaluated through detection performance and response-oriented indicators such as lead time, calibration, false-alert burden, missed-warning rate, response completion, disease suppression, economic value, and learning after field action.
Abstract Disease management aims to protect crop yield and quality and reduce economic losses caused by plant pathogens. Consequently, reducing disease is a central objective of applied plant pathology. However, what constitutes effective disease control, and how it is measured and analyzed, varies substantially among studies. We conducted a systematic methodological review to characterize how plant disease control has been evaluated in the plant pathology literature over the past 15 years. We searched selected plant pathology journals for articles containing "control" in their titles and used an artificial intelligence-assisted workflow, followed by human verification, to extract and standardize information on experimental settings, disease measurements, measurement scales, and statistical analyses. The final dataset comprised 340 articles representing diverse host-pathogen systems and experimental environments. Disease control was evaluated using a wide range of response variables, most commonly disease severity and incidence, with substantial heterogeneity in measurement scales and sampling practices. Despite this diversity, statistical analysis was remarkably uniform: 79.4% of articles relied exclusively on ANOVA-based approaches. Among studies using ordinal disease scales, 73.3% included ANOVA in the analysis, whereas only 10.6% explicitly reported data transformation. Mean-separation procedures were also common, particularly Tukey, Fisher's LSD, and Duncan's multiple range test; Duncan's test was reported in 20.3% of all articles and varied markedly among journals. Our findings reveal a marked contrast between diversity in how plant disease control is measured and the narrower range of methods used to analyze those measurements. Greater alignment among biological meaning, measurement properties, experimental design, and statistical analysis could improve transparency, comparability, and interpretation in disease-management research.
Abstract. In the face of escalating global food demand and increasing climate variability, precise and granular crop yield monitoring is indispensable for maintaining regional agricultural stability. However, current deep learning approaches for yield estimation are severely constrained by their heavy reliance on massive in situ labeled data, which limits their application in data-scarce regions. Furthermore, these models often overlook the essential temporal evolution logic of yield formation and lack a systematic discussion regarding the contribution patterns of different feature dimensions, resulting in a black-box nature of the underlying model mechanisms. To address these challenges, this study proposes a field-label-free training framework for maize yield estimation that couples mechanistic model with deep learning. The framework's core strength lies in a physiologically complete simulation database, using the WOFOST model to exhaustively cover 30 years of climate variability and habitat combinations across Northeast China (1.24 × 106 km2). A Gated Recurrent Unit (GRU) network was then introduced for end-to-end modeling, accurately capturing the energy accumulation trajectory from vegetative to reproductive growth. Validation against 458 independent ground points (2022–2024) demonstrated robust generalization with an R2 of 0.69, an RMSE of 1.21 t ha−1, and an RRMSE of 13.73 %, despite using no ground data for training. Our analysis revealed that integrating photosynthetic intensity (LAImean), duration (LAD) and peak features (LAImax) across growth stages is critical for accuracy, while omitting early-stage features significantly impairs the model's ability to capture cumulative growth effects. Furthermore, the model successfully captured the spatiotemporal yield anomalies caused by the 2023 typhoon and flooding events. Ultimately, this study generated a 10 m resolution maize yield dataset (2019–2024) for Northeast China. The dataset exhibits consistent interannual stability, with the RRMSE ranging from 7.98 % to 12.92 % and the R2 remaining above 0.44 at the city level. By deeply coupling mechanistic simulation with data mining, this dataset provides detailed support for optimizing agricultural production and guiding farming practices. The Northeast China Maize Yield 10 m dataset is openly available at https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.19547014 (Hu et al., 2026).
Reproduction assets foundThe paper's core output, the NortheastChinaMaizeYield10m maize yield dataset (2019–2024) with accompanying uncertainty layers, is openly deposited on Zenodo with an explicit availability statement and DOI. No author analysis code or trained model checkpoints are stated as publicly available.Dataset · publicThe Northeast China Maize Yield 10 m dataset is openly available at https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.19547014 (Hu et al., 2026).Open asset ↗Zenodo · 10.5281/zenodo.19547014lines:158-191Plant phenotyping relevance matchEurope PMC · checked 5 Sept 2026
Background Global soybean production is constrained by scarce arable land, and standardized evaluation tools remain lacking for natural mixed saline-alkali stress, the predominant abiotic stress under field conditions. Objective This study aimed to establish a comprehensive saline-alkali tolerance evaluation system for soybean germplasms via integrated multivariate statistical methods, and screen core and auxiliary indicators for efficient germplasm identification. Methods Seventy-one soybean germplasms were tested under 90 mmol/L mixed saline-alkali stress (NaCl:Na 2 SO 4 :NaHCO 3 :Na 2 CO 3 = 1:9:9:1, pH 8.2) simulating natural saline-alkali soil. We quantified the saline-alkali tolerance coefficients (SATC) of 13 morphological and physiological indicators, followed by coefficient of variation (CV), principal component analysis (PCA), subordinate function, cluster analysis and regression modeling. Results Significant inter-germplasm variations in saline-alkali tolerance were detected, and indicators with CV > 0.35 ( e.g ., root length (RL), root fresh weight (RFW)) were screened as primary indices. PCA extracted five principal components with 87.18% cumulative variance contribution, and the integrated analytical pipeline categorized germplasms into five tolerance grades: eight highly tolerant, 24 moderately tolerant, 13 generally tolerant, 16 sensitive and 10 highly sensitive accessions. A high-precision prediction model was constructed ( D = 0.290 X 1 - 0.026 X 2 + 0.438 X 3 + 0.402 X 4 + 0.180 X 5 + 0.153 X 6 + 0.813 X 7 - 1.123; R 2 = 0.998, where X 1 - X 7 represent the SATC of germination rate (GR), RL, RFW, total fresh weight (TFW), shoot dry weight (SDW), root dry weight (RDW), and total dry weight (TDW), respectively). A Chi-squared Automatic Interaction Detection (CHAID) decision tree model was further developed and validated using 10-fold cross-validation, yielding a cross-validation risk value of 0.003, which was comparable to the resubstitution risk value (0.002), indicating good generalization ability and low risk of overfitting. A novel five-dimensional overlapping analysis identified RFW as the core evaluation indicator, with RDW, TFW and R/S as key auxiliary indicators. Conclusion This study delivers a standardized, reproducible technical framework for large-scale screening of saline-alkali-tolerant soybean germplasms. It facilitates global saline-alkali land utilization, accelerates worldwide soybean stress-tolerance breeding, and provides a transferable paradigm for stress tolerance evaluation in other major crops.
Live imaging of plant subcellular structures is key to deciphering the spatiotemporal bases of cellular processes, and their functional impact on growth and morphogenesis at various biological scales. Live imaging of plant cells essentially relies on expression of fluorescent markers labeling cells or subcellular structures of interest. Simultaneous multi-channel imaging of several markers is still not routine practice in plant cell biology, owing to issues linked to genetic or spectral compatibility of markers, differences in expression levels, silencing, toxicity, etc. Here we designed a three-color marker in Arabidopsis thaliana and Capsella rubella , enabling high-resolution live imaging of plant morphogenesis, including labeling of the cell membrane, the nucleus and the microtubule cytoskeleton. Detection of MT arrays involved the development of a MAP4-MBD-based microtubule marker optimized for plant cells. The three- color marker allows visualization of the three-dimensional organization and dynamics of plant microtubules within the intracellular space with unprecedented precision, in various organs including the root and shoot meristems, the leaf, anther, and gynoecium. Our results demonstrate the potential of such single-construct strategy for cell biology studies in plants.
Andrew Trlica · Rachel L. Cook · Matthew J. Sumnall
Field / plotLiDAR / point cloudMultispectral / hyperspectralLeafMorphology / geometry measurementLeaf traits
Canopy Leaf Area Index (CLAI) is a stand attribute containing information on the real-time health and growth potential of managed pine plantations. Current remote sensing techniques for quantifying CLAI rely on simple linear models applied to satellite multispectral imagery, or on techniques based on light detection and ranging (LiDAR) data that are costly and less frequently collected. This study demonstrates a convolutional neural network (CNN) approach to retrieving CLAI from 10 m Sentinel-2 multispectral imagery with a model trained on gridded LiDAR-based CLAI estimates. We demonstrate large gains in accuracy with the CNN compared to traditional linear models based on vegetation indices (e.g., Simple Ratio), but also clear shortfalls in model skill when predicting “blind” in some spatial domains that were completely excluded during model training. Pixel-scale root mean squared error ranged from 0.34 to 0.64 by domain when exposed to CLAI training data from all available spatial domains, but rose to 0.58–1.74 when predicting without prior domain-specific training. Prediction accuracy was consistently lower when applied to completely unobserved USGS LiDAR-based CLAI estimates. Traditional linear models, in contrast, had the advantage of usually lower prediction error across unobserved spatial domains (0.43–1.98), but with lower maximum accuracy. These results demonstrate a potential route for deploying more complex models for LiDAR “mimicry”, e.g., between data acquisitions widely separated in time, but advocate for the development and use of more stable generalized approaches for use in unobserved managed pine stands.
Wheat grain number integrates fate of individual florets, strongly affected by environmental stress during sensitive stages like meiosis. Because development is asynchronous across tillers, spikelets, and florets, it is hard to distinguish stress tolerance from stress escape. Based on 2400 destructive measurements of spike and anther length together with non-destructive morphological measurements from 158 plants grown in four experiments in controlled-environment, we developed a framework to track individual floret developmental stages at plant level. We applied it in two case studies for connecting within-plant developmental asynchrony to reproductive success under favorable or heat conditions. All florets showed a common relative growth rate, producing additive delays across tillers (1-7 d), spikelets (1-5 d), and floret positions (1-6 d). This generated a developmental map for every floret based on external traits. Under control conditions, grain set probability at floret level combined both positional and developmental effects within a spike. Under heat stress, grain loss occurred only in florets at meiosis during the stress, allowing to quantify a true "stress response", while later florets escaped damage. This framework allows understanding and predicting floret development and linking it to grain set, clearly distinguishing timing effects from positional influences and separating tolerance from stress escape.
Plant secondary metabolites are mainly synthesized and stored in secretory tissues. Secretory canal development has been mainly characterized in Apiaceae. The secretory canals of Peucedanum praeruptorum contain pharmacologically active coumarins, but their organ-specific distribution and developmental dynamics remain poorly understood. This study integrated light microscopy (LM), transmission electron microscopy (TEM), X-ray microcomputed tomography (µ-CT), and high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) to investigate canal development, distribution, ultrastructure, 3D architecture, and coumarin accumulation in P. praeruptorum roots. Histological analysis showed that canals adjacent to the periderm originate from pericycle cells, whereas those in secondary phloem arise from parenchyma differentiation; both develop schizogenously. Canal quantity and dimensions varied temporally. Canals located in phloem showed density increasing toward the cambial zone, where cross-sectional areas were smaller. The canal density index increased from September to November, peaking on November 15, then declined. HPLC revealed dynamic accumulation of five major coumarins: content increased from September, peaked on November 15, then gradually decreased. TEM showed that epithelial cells surrounding the canal lumen were rich in Golgi, ER, mitochondria, plastids, starch grains, and osmiophilic droplets. µ-CT volumetric analysis and segmentation generated detailed 3D models, revealing spatial organization and enabling size-based grouping of canals (1000-3000 μm). These dimensional characteristics aligned with developmental progression. This study characterizes the ontogeny, distribution, ultrastructure, and 3D architecture of secretory canals, providing a structural foundation for investigating correlations between secretory tissues and compound synthesis.
Hazra M, Crowther A, McInerney F, Strömberg CAE, Fabillo M.
LeafSeed / grainClassification
Background and aims Phytolith analysis is widely applied in palaeoecological and archaeological research, but its interpretive strength depends on the availability of robust modern reference collections. This study expands the modern Australian phytolith reference collection by analysing 42 native plant species representing 24 families and 37 genera with emphasis on silicification patterns across major growth forms, including forbs, shrubs, trees, and C3 grasses. Methods Phytoliths were extracted from available plant parts, including leaves, stems, flowers, seeds, seed pods, cones, and roots, depending on sample availability. Morphotypes were identified following ICPN 2.0, with grass silica short cell phytoliths (GSSCPs) further classified by shape and size to examine subfamily-level patterns. Phytolith morphotype percentage data were analysed using Hellinger transformation, PerMANOVA, PCA, LDA, and hierarchical clustering to assess compositional differences among plant growth forms and grass subfamilies. Key results Phytolith production varied strongly among growth forms and plant parts. Grasses were abundant producers, whereas most forbs, shrubs, and trees were trace producers or non-producers. Leaves were the most consistent source of phytoliths, while seeds and seed pods were predominantly non-producers. Grass silica short-cell phytolith (GSSCP) morphotypes showed clear subfamily-level differentiation. Pooideae produced Rondel morphotypes. Danthonoideae produced Rondel as well as wide Bilobate types. Panicoideae and Oryzoideae exhibited a pronounced Bilobate signature, commonly associated with Polylobate and Cross forms. Non-grass taxa (woody, shrubs, and forbs) were dominated by Spheroids, Tracheary elements, Epidermal, and Polygonal sheets and other non-diagnostic forms. Phytolith assemblages differed significantly among plant families, with Poaceae uniquely producing GSSCPs, while non-grass families showed greater overlap in assemblage composition. Conclusion By expanding taxonomic and anatomical coverage, this study strengthens the capabilities of phytoliths in the reconstruction of grasslands and in general paleo vegetation in Australia, especially where other proxies such as pollen are limited.
Reproduction assets foundThe authors explicitly state that the R scripts used for data analysis and figure generation are publicly available on their GitHub repository, which directly reproduces this paper's phytolith statistical analyses (PCA, LDA, PerMANOVA, clustering, plots). Supplementary data files contain the paper's measurements but noCode · publicntification of all plant specimens collected for this
study.
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14 FUNDING
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15 Funding for this study was provided by ARC Discovery grant DP210100508 and a Ph.D.
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16 fellowship (UQGSS) to MH.
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17 DATA AVAILABILITY
18 The R scripts used for data analysis and figure generation are publicly available on GitHub
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19 repository: https://github.com/Manoshi-sporo/Australian-Phytolith-Reference-Collection.
20 CONFLICTS OF INTEREST
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21 The authors declare no competing financial or commercial interests.
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22 AUTHOR CONTRIBUTIONS
23 MH: writing original draft, conceptualization, software, investigation. AC: Supervision, Writing -
24 Review and editing, FM: Supervision, Writing-Review and editing.Open asset ↗Manoshi-sporo/Australian-Phytolith-Reference-Collectionpdf-layout-page:34 lines:1-87Plant phenotyping relevance matchEurope PMC · checked 5 Sept 2026
Abstract Understanding the allometric relationships between leaf area and other plant traits is essential for non-destructive growth monitoring and efficient crop management. However, no comprehensive study has yet modeled leaf area in quinoa ( Chenopodium quinoa Willd.) using simple morphological traits across different sowing dates. This study aimed to quantify allometric relationships between leaf area and plant height, leaf dry weight, stem dry weight, panicle dry weight, and total dry matter, and to evaluate whether these relationships are modified by sowing date. A two-year field experiment was conducted with 12 sowing dates under a randomized complete block design with three replications. Leaf area index (LAI) dynamics were described using a logistic model, and allometric relationships were fitted using power-law equations. The results showed that LAI followed a logistic trend across all sowing dates, with maximum values ranging from 2.7 to 7.9. Plant height provided the most reliable prediction of leaf area (R² = 0.83, b = 1.2), followed by leaf dry weight (R² = 0.72, b = 0.97). The allometric coefficients for stem dry weight (b = 1.54, R² = 0.74) and panicle dry weight (b = 1.95, R² = 0.71) showed greater variability. A striking finding was the exceptionally high allometric coefficient (b = 4.95) recorded on May 6 of the second year, indicating a pronounced shift in resource allocation toward leaf area expansion. Total dry matter was a weak predictor (R² = 0.54), likely due to leaf fall during the growing season. The hypothesis that sowing date modifies allometric relationships was confirmed, as evidenced by considerable variation in allometric coefficients across sowing dates. This study provides, for the first time, a comprehensive set of allometric models for quinoa across multiple sowing dates. Plant height and leaf dry weight are recommended as simple, rapid, and non-destructive indicators for leaf area estimation, facilitating improved crop monitoring and management under diverse environmental conditions.
Cercospora janseana (Racib.) O. Const. is a re-emerging fungal pathogen that causes Cercospora net blotch on rice. Previous research on resistance to C. janseana has primarily focused on foliar symptoms. Subsequently, sheath infection remains poorly characterized which hinders disease management efforts. This study developed and validated a reproducible sheath inoculation protocol under controlled conditions. Three inoculation methods (agar disc, spray, and drop) were evaluated with and without mechanical wounding. Lesions only formed with inoculation methods using wounding and the agar disc method produced the most consistent and uniform symptom development. Time-course analysis in the susceptible variety Cheniere revealed earlier lesion onset, more rapid expansion, and lower variability in the agar disc method compared to spray, confirming its suitability for phenotypic screening. The optimized protocol was applied across five independent trials involving four rice varieties. DG263L consistently exhibited minimal lesion development, confirming its resistance, while Cheniere showed extensive lesion growth, indicating high susceptibility. PVL03 and LaGrue displayed moderately susceptible reactions, with PVL03 developing significantly higher lesion lengths and AUDPC values than LaGrue in one-month-old plants. Although lesion onset was delayed in 45-day-old plants, disease progressed more rapidly once established. AUDPC analysis corroborated these trends, further distinguishing varietal responses. The protocol effectively discerned resistant, intermediate, and susceptible phenotypes, supporting its use in resistance screening. To our knowledge, this is the first controlled sheath inoculation method developed for Cercospora net blotch, offering a standardized approach for evaluating sheath-specific resistance and advancing the characterization of the C. janseana -rice pathosystem.
Dorado-Betancourt H, van Eeuwijk F, van Etten J, Ramirez-Villegas J, de Sousa K, Daudi H, Ndegwa M, Mendes T, van Heerwaarden J.
MaizePeanut / groundnutSweet potatoField / plot
Key message Our scalable two-step method estimates genotypic performance and genetic parameters from ranking data, producing reliable results comparable to quantitative analyses, enabling the integration of ranking data into breeding pipelines. Plant breeding research has chiefly relied on on-station experiments to evaluate varietal performance. Nevertheless, these trials often fail to represent on-farm growing conditions and farmers' preferences, potentially leading to poorly defined breeding targets. Recent work has demonstrated the potential of using on-farm verification trials combined with ranking data to support farmers in evaluating varieties while providing information that is representative of farmers' needs. Despite this potential, scalable methods for quantifying genetic differences and assessing the strength of the genetic signal in such trials remain limited. Here, we present a two-step procedure for analyzing trials based on ranking data, allowing the estimation of genetic parameters. The approach follows a common strategy in quantitative genetics, in which parameters are estimated from tables of genotypic means and their variances. In our framework, these estimates are obtained from Thurstonian and/or Plackett-Luce models, which treat rankings as observations of an underlying continuous trait associated with genotypic performance. Using simulated data, we showed that genotypic mean estimates derived from ranking analyses are linearly related to those obtained from quantitative trait analyses and that their variances adequately capture estimation uncertainty. We further demonstrated that incorporating these estimates and their variances into a second-step mixed-effects model yields accurate estimates of variance components. Analyses of groundnut, maize, and sweetpotato datasets confirmed the applicability of the approach and showed that ranking data can provide reliable estimates of genetic parameters. We argue that this framework can be scaled to obtain genotypic performance estimates from multi-trial on-farm data.
Reproduction assets foundThe paper's Data availability statement provides public access to the observed groundnut and sweetpotato ranking/trial datasets (Zenodo 17112492), the authors' R functions and simulation workflow (GitHub hdorado/tricot-ranking-analysis, archived Zenodo 17942919), and supplementary material with methods and figures (ZenDataset · publicThe observed data for groundnut and sweetpotato used in this study are publicly available and can be accessed at: Global multi-crop agricultural trial data supported by citizen science, Zenodo [ https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.17112492 ]Open asset ↗Zenodo · 10.5281/zenodo.17112492lines:205-225Code · publicThe R functions and simulation workflow used in this study are publicly available at: - Source code available from: [ https://github.com/hdorado/tricot-ranking-analysis ]Open asset ↗GitHub · hdorado/tricot-ranking-analysislines:205-225Code · public- Archived software available from: [ https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.17942919 ] - License: [MIT License]Open asset ↗Zenodo · 10.5281/zenodo.17942919lines:205-225Plant phenotyping relevance matchbioRxiv · Europe PMC · checked 5 Sept 2026
Red crown rot of soybean (RCR), caused by Calonectria ilicicola, is an emerging soilborne disease whose quantification is challenging due to its complex symptom development across root and foliage levels. This study developed and evaluated a multi-scale framework to improve the assessment of RCR severity from controlled environments to field conditions using root imaging and standardized visual scales. Under controlled conditions, a standard area diagram (SAD) for root necrosis was developed and validated, and SAD-assisted evaluations significantly improved accuracy, precision, and inter-rater agreement compared with unaided assessments. In field conditions, a diagrammatic symptom scale (DSS) was developed using consensus-rated images from experts and showed high reliability, repeatability, and reproducibility across 18 raters, with strong intra- and inter-rater agreement. This study developed and evaluated complementary methods to improve the assessment of RCR severity from controlled environments to field conditions using root imaging and standardized visual scales.
Stomatal traits are key microscopic phenotypes for evaluating plant physiology, stress responses, and crop breeding potential. However, in vivo high-magnification microscopy often suffers from a shallow depth of field, causing noticeable defocus blur across different spatial locations and making it difficult to capture clear and complete stomatal structures in a single image. Multi-focus image fusion offers a practical solution, yet existing methods typically rely on supervised training, paired data, or hand-crafted rules, limiting their use in real agricultural microscopy scenarios. In this study, we propose an unsupervised multi-focus fusion framework for reconstructing fully focused stomatal microscopic images. The method integrates two-dimensional feature extraction with three-dimensional cross-focal-plane modeling to capture both spatial details and complementary information across focal planes. A max-response-guided spatial gating module is introduced to enhance focused regions while suppressing defocused responses. Additionally, dual sharpness priors based on perceptual features and wavelet high-frequency information enable pixel-wise pseudo-supervised learning without requiring all-in-focus ground-truth images. The model also predicts a probabilistic focal-plane volume for interpretable all-in-focus reconstruction. Experiments on a maize multi-focus image dataset demonstrate that the proposed method achieves superior or competitive performance across multiple fusion metrics, with entropy (EN), edge information preservation ( Q AB∕F ), Chen-Blum contrast metric ( Q CB ), and visual information fidelity for fusion (VIFF) reaching 7.43, 0.21, 0.41, and 1.01, respectively. Ablation studies confirm the effectiveness of the 3D modeling, spatial gating, and dual-prior sharpness supervision. More importantly, when the fused images serve as input to a YOLO-based stomatal instance segmentation model, the proposed method yields the best segmentation accuracy, with mAP50 and mAP50-95 reaching 0.9937 and 0.9121, respectively. Phenotypic measurements derived from the segmentation masks show high consistency with manual annotations, with the highest coefficient of determination R 2 = 0.97 achieved for stomatal count. These results indicate that the framework can act as an effective front-end module for automated microscopic stomatal phenotyping in agriculture.
Reproduction assets foundThe authors state their data and code are publicly available on GitHub, covering the multi-focus stomatal microscopy dataset and the UMF-stomata fusion/phenotyping code.Code · publicOur data and code are available at: https://github.com/Longer-S/UMF-Stomata.Open asset ↗Longer-S/UMF-Stomatahtml-lines:640-655Dataset · publicOur data and code are available at: https://github.com/Longer-S/UMF-Stomata.Open asset ↗Longer-S/UMF-Stomatahtml-lines:683-756Plant phenotyping relevance matchCrossref · checked 15 Sept 2026
ABSTRACT The present study evaluated the applicability of Portable X‐ray Fluorescence (pXRF) for rapid determination of seed mineral concentrations in cowpea [ Vigna unguiculata (L.) Walp.] by comparing pXRF measurements with those obtained using Atomic Absorption Spectroscopy (AAS). Fifty‐seven cowpea genotypes, including two check varieties, were analysed for iron (Fe), zinc (Zn), manganese (Mn), copper (Cu), potassium (K), and calcium (Ca). Simple linear regression was used to assess the relationship between pXRF‐ and AAS‐derived mineral concentrations using training ( n = 47) and independent validation ( n = 10) datasets. The pXRF measurements showed good agreement with the corresponding AAS values for both macro‐ and micronutrients, with comparatively stronger relationships observed for Fe, Zn, Mn, and Cu. Residual and normal Q–Q plot analyses supported the suitability of the regression models. The findings demonstrate that pXRF enables rapid, simultaneous multielement analysis with minimal sample preparation and provides an efficient approach for high‐throughput mineral phenotyping and biofortification‐oriented cowpea breeding programmes.
Efficient facility-scale tomato ripeness monitoring remains difficult in greenhouses where uneven terrain limits conventional wheeled and rail-guided platforms and planar cameras provide restricted coverage. This study developed a wheel-legged quadruped monitoring system integrating LiDAR, a depth camera, and a panoramic camera. An adaptive gait-switching strategy supported navigation across heterogeneous terrain. Panoramic images were projected into six perspective views, and the left and right views were processed using a YOLOv8-based ripeness recognition model. Time-synchronized detections and robot poses were fused to map ripeness observations into three-dimensional greenhouse coordinates. Five field experiments in a commercial tomato facility demonstrated autonomous row traversal, inter-row transition, and avoidance of pedestrians, obstacles, and cultivation boundaries. The recognition pipeline continuously identified multiple ripeness stages under variable illumination, foliage occlusion, and robot motion, while the spatial fusion procedure produced a facility-scale three-dimensional ripeness distribution. The integration of terrain-adaptive quadruped mobility, panoramic perception, and spatial mapping provides a practical framework for continuous ripeness monitoring and can support targeted harvesting, yield forecasting, and crop management.
Abstract Plants employ non-photochemical quenching (NPQ) to protect their photosynthetic apparatus from photodamage. The response latency of NPQ following changes in light intensity is thought to significantly decrease photosynthetic efficiency. The amount of NPQ is commonly quantified from chlorophyll-fluorescence techniques using the Stern–Volmer equation, which requires fully closed reaction centres (RCs) of photosystem II, yielding NPQ in the absence of photochemical quenching ( $${\rm{NPQ}}^{\rm{Closed}}$$ NPQ Closed ). However, in nature, NPQ and photochemical quenching are normally present simultaneously. Therefore, to obtain a full understanding of this process, NPQ should also be explored when the RCs are open. Here we developed two methodologies to obtain NPQ in the presence of photochemistry ( $${\rm{NPQ}}^{\rm{Open}}$$ NPQ Open ) using both fluorescence lifetime and fluorescence yield measurements. A detailed comparison in Arabidopsis thaliana plants reveals that the value of $${\mathrm{NPQ}}^{\mathrm{Open}}$$ NPQ Open is ~35% lower than that of $${\rm{NPQ}}^{\rm{Closed}}$$ NPQ Closed . This difference is consistently observed across all measurements and is seen both upon closing ( $${\rm{NPQ}}^{\rm{Open}}\to {\rm{NPQ}}^{\rm{Closed}}$$ NPQ Open → NPQ Closed ) and upon reopening ( $${\mathrm{NPQ}}^{\mathrm{Closed}}\to {\mathrm{NPQ}}^{\mathrm{Open}}$$ NPQ Closed → NPQ Open ) of the RCs. We show that this difference can be explained by the presence of RC-induced ‘instantaneous’ switching of the NPQ quenching rate. This means that, in plants, NPQ is much more economical than is widely believed, it is large when its presence is needed, and it decreases instantaneously when the need disappears.
Reproduction assets foundThe paper's custom ultrafast fluorescence analysis code (ICA-based PSII/PSI deconvolution and NPQ calculations) is explicitly deposited by the authors on GitHub, alongside the original data contributions.Code · publicr(s) for their contribution to the peer review of this work. Peer reviewer reports are available.
Funding
This work was supported by ‘Nanoscale regulators of photosynthesis’ NWO research project (project number: OCENW.GROOT.2019.86).
Data availability
The original contributions presented in the study are available via GitHub at https://github.com/L-Ramakers/Heimdall .
Code availability
The custom analysis code used in the study is available via GitHub at https://github.com/L-Ramakers/Heimdall .
Competing interests
The authors declare no competing interests.
Footnotes
Publisher’s note Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional afOpen asset ↗L-Ramakers/Heimdalllines:88-125Code / dataset availability confirmedCrossref · checked 11 Sept 2026
Abstract Purpose Long-term monitoring of crop biophysical and biochemical traits remains challenging in high-latitude regions due to short growing seasons, frequent cloud cover, and highly variable weather. In this context, unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) offer flexible, high-resolution observations, but their added value relative to low-cost proximal sensors and their effectiveness for radiative transfer model (RTM) inversion across diverse crop canopies remain insufficiently quantified. This study evaluated the potential of a two-band proximal spectral reflectance sensor (SRS) and a five-band multispectral UAV sensor for retrieving leaf area index (LAI), leaf chlorophyll content (LCC), and canopy chlorophyll content (CCC) using PROSAIL inversion across major crops in Northern Europe over two growing seasons (2023–2024). Methods and Results Two inversion approaches – look-up table (LUT) and artificial neural network (ANN) were applied to PROSAIL simulations. UAV–PROSAIL–ANN outperformed LUT-based inversion and SRS observations, achieving the highest accuracy for LAI (R 2 = 0.81–0.95; RMSE = 0.27–0.77 m 2 /m 2 ), followed by CCC (R 2 = 0.58–0.94; RMSE 2 ), while LCC remained less accurately estimated (R 2 = 0.26–0.78; RMSE 2 ). Across sensors and methods, retrieval accuracy decreased in the order of LAI, CCC, and LCC, reflecting the stronger spectral control of canopy structure compared to biochemical traits. Conclusions The UAV–PROSAIL–ANN framework effectively captured spatial and temporal variability in crop traits, producing canopy-scale maps consistent with field observations. These results demonstrate the robustness and scalability of hybrid PROSAIL–ANN inversion for high-latitude crop monitoring, while highlighting current limitations in biochemical trait retrieval using multispectral data.
Reproduction assets foundThe paper's Data availability statement explicitly deposits the authors' UAV image processing code (irradiance normalization, vignetting, exposure compensation, radiometric calibration) in a public GitHub repository under GPL v3.0; other data are available only upon request.Code · publicData availability Code to perform irradiance normalization, vignetting, exposure compensation, and radio-
metric calibration is available at https://github.com/fieldSITES/scripts/tree/main/UAV under GNU General
Public License v3.0. Other data will be made available upon request.Open asset ↗UAVpdf-page:34 lines:1-40Plant phenotyping relevance matchCrossref · checked 11 Sept 2026
Accurate estimation of aboveground biomass (AGB) in dryland savanna woodlands is constrained by sparse field data, which has motivated widespread fusion of field plots with spaceborne LiDAR reference data from the Global Ecosystem Dynamics Investigation (GEDI). Here, we show that such fusion can substantially inflate apparent model accuracy when the two reference sources sample different spatial domains. Using 44 field plots from the Abu-Gadaf Natural Reserved Forest (AGNRF), Sudan, and 56 GEDI L4A footprints drawn from a 50 km buffer surrounding the reserve, we trained Random Forest (RF), Gradient Boosting (GB) and Classification and Regression Tree (CART) models on Sentinel-1, Sentinel-2, SRTM and Dynamic World predictors and evaluated them under 10-fold, 2 km block spatial cross-validation. The merged dataset yielded apparently moderate performance (RF: RMSE = 9.40 Mg ha−1, R2 = 0.33). However, GEDI-derived AGB was 2.1 times higher than field-measured AGB (18.71 vs. 8.89 Mg ha−1; Kolmogorov–Smirnov D = 0.53, p
Abstract In peanut ( Arachis hypogaea L.), plant stand establishment, seedling vigor, and canopy growth are key determinants of crop performance; yet traditional ground‐based assessment methods can be destructive, labor‐intensive, and limited in throughput. This study evaluated the potential of vegetation metrics derived from unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV)‐based red‐green‐blue (RGB) and multispectral (MS) imagery for high‐throughput, nondestructive assessment of plant stand establishment, seedling vigor, and light interception in peanut. Six runner‐type peanut cultivars were evaluated in 2024 and seven in 2025, with each cultivar represented by two seed size classes (small and large), to generate variation in these traits. Within‐row vegetation discontinuity‐based plant stand ratings for estimating plant stand count ( R 2 = 0.81–0.90), together with canopy coverage for assessing seedling biomass ( R 2 = 0.77–0.82) and light interception ( R 2 = 0.96–0.98), were the best‐performing vegetation metrics. These vegetation metrics provided similar or greater cultivar separation compared with ground‐based measurements. In contrast, several vegetation indices exhibited strong correlations with ground‐based measurements but provided inconsistent cultivar rankings and statistical groupings. MS imagery outperformed RGB imagery for plant stand and seedling biomass assessment. Overall, these results demonstrate that UAV‐derived canopy metrics provide reliable, high‐throughput tools for early‐ to mid‐season crop assessment and offer scalable alternatives to traditional ground‐based approaches for agronomic, crop physiological, and plant breeding research.
Accurate tree volume estimation is central to forest management and carbon accounting. Allometric equations are widely used but limited in transferability across species, regions, and environmental conditions. Mobile Laser Scanning (MLS) offers a promising alternative through direct measurement of tree geometry; however, the influence of tree shape on MLS accuracy remains poorly understood. This study evaluated MLS-derived estimates of stem diameters, total tree height, and merchantable stem volume against destructive reference measurements from 176 trees spanning eight species (four hardwood, four softwood) in Wallonia, Belgium. A Zeb Horizon RT scanner was used; tree architectural descriptors extracted from the point cloud were tested for associations with measurement error. Across 7,824 stem diameter measurements, MLS achieved a mean error of 0.46 cm, with precision declining above 15 m. MLS-derived height outperformed Vertex IV clinometer measurements for hardwood species (RMSE% = 6.88 vs. 8.78) but performed slightly less well for softwoods (RMSE% = 7.36 vs. 6.14). QSM-based volume estimates systematically underestimated reference values, while taper-based reconstruction produced nearly unbiased estimates with an RMSE of 15.72%. Correlation analyses and PCA showed that tree architectural variables explained only a small fraction of MLS error variability. Diameter and height errors were largely independent of structural attributes, while volume errors showed moderate associations with tree size and crown density. These findings indicate that tree architecture is not a primary source of MLS measurement uncertainty. Future MLS-based forest inventory efforts should prioritize acquisition and processing optimization, as scanning conditions and forest structure appear more influential than tree shape.
India’s economy is heavily reliant on agriculture, with a diverse array of crops grown on vast tracts of land. Fruit cultivation, especially papaya, has become more popular in recent years because of its high nutritional and financial value. To increase yield, maximize resource use and lessen reliance on chemical pesticides, modern techniques like protected cultivation and hydroponics are being used more and more. Fruit crops grown in controlled or semi-controlled environments are still susceptible to nutrient imbalances despite these developments, which can have a substantial impact on plant health, fruit quality and overall productivity. Papaya leaf nutrient deficiencies frequently show up in the early stages of growth and can result in poor fruit development and decreased yield if they are not detected in time. To support early diagnosis and better crop management, the current study focuses on creating an effective method for identifying nutrient deficiencies in papaya leaves using a deep learning (DL) framework based on transfer learning (TL). In this nutrient and micronutrient deficiency study and field work observation during year 2024 to 2026 with different climate and weather conditions done in order to tackle a new but related classification task, in the context of plant health assessment, several well-established architectures including InceptionV3, VGG19, DenseNet and Xception have been widely explored for leaf image analysis. Studies commonly utilize publicly available datasets, such as papaya leaf image repositories hosted on platforms like IEEE DataPort, to fine-tune these models for efficient feature extraction and accurate identification of nutrient and micronutrient deficiency patterns. This body of work demonstrates the growing role of transferring convolutional neural network (CNN) models in advancing automated crop monitoring and decision support systems.
Accurate estimation of the photorespiratory CO 2 compensation point (Γ*) is essential for describing the balance between Rubisco carboxylation and oxygenation and for parameterising biochemical models of photosynthesis. Γ* and the rate of CO 2 release in the light (D L ) are commonly estimated using the Laisk method, based on measurements of net CO 2 assimilation rate (A net ) at low chloroplastic CO 2 concentrations (c c ), under several sub-saturating irradiance levels. However, many widely used temperature dependence relationships for Γ* (Γ*(T)) were derived using conventional linear implementations of the Laisk method, despite the intrinsically nonlinear behaviour of the A net -c c response predicted by the photosynthetic theory. Here, we revisited the temperature dependence of Γ* and D L using the improved Laisk-FvCB framework that simultaneously constrains the nonlinear A net -c c response across multiple irradiance levels. Gas exchange of sunflower leaves was measured across a wide temperature range from 3.9°C to 42.0°C. The conventional linear implementation generated highly dispersed pairwise intersections and unstable estimates of both Γ* and D L , including some physiologically unrealistic negative D L values at low temperatures. In contrast, the mechanistically constrained Laisk-FvCB framework produced physiologically meaningful temperature responses and substantially reduced methodological artefacts associated with linear extrapolation. Using this framework, we derived a revised in vivo Γ*(T) relationship described by an Arrhenius-type function with Γ*(25) = 43.4 μmol mol -1 and an apparent activation energy of 27.7 kJ mol -1 , such that Γ*(T) = 43.4 exp[11.176 ((T - 25)/(T + 273.15))], where T is leaf temperature in °C. Comparison with other widely used Γ*(T) formulations showed substantial divergence at temperature extremes, often exceeding the variability expected from realistic interspecific differences in Rubisco specificity among C 3 species.
Conventional methods of plant distance and volume measurements are limited by low efficiency, limited spatial coverage, and high measurement error. LiDAR and RGB-D imaging offer cost-effective, precise, and non-destructive techniques for plant distance and volume measurements. This study aimed to measure cabbage height, volume, and distance using LiDAR and RGB-D imaging. The sensors were mounted on a 1.6 kW electric field scouting platform (EFSP) for data collection. Point cloud (PCD) data were collected using LiDAR, whereas data processing, visualization, and measurements were done using commercial software and open-source programming scripts. A total of 20 cabbage plants were analyzed. LiDAR data processing included data frame screening, outlier removal, denoising, voxelization, and generation of 3D PCD density maps. Depth image processing included importing raw data and metadata shaping using intrinsic camera parameters, visualization, extraction of depth points, and pixel-level measurements of distances and volume. RGB image processing involved image conversion, segmentation, normalization, binary masking, mask cleaning, region extraction of cabbages, separation of ROI and preparation of contours, Delaunay triangulation and convex hull preparation, ROI overlay, bounding box preparation, sharing boundary between two boxes, conversion to pixel distances, and for visualization, plant height, volume measurements, and center to center distance measurement for measuring the plant distance. LiDAR demonstrated higher measurement accuracy for cabbage plant height, circumferential volume (geometric canopy volume), and plant distance, followed by RGB-D imaging, while RGB imagery showed comparatively lower performance under the study field conditions. Overall, LiDAR and RGB-D imaging provided reliable and non-destructive approaches for cabbage geometric characterization under field conditions, although accurately capturing complex plant geometry remains challenging. Positive and negative values of bias represent the over- and under-estimated results, respectively. Future studies should include larger and more diverse plant datasets exhibiting diversified size, shape, and geometric structure to further improve the robustness and general applicability of the proposed sensing approaches.
Raquel Shany Betancur-Choquehuayta · Esther Emiliana Molina-Gonzales · Dony Javier Flores-Subeleta · Raymundo O. Gutiérrez-Rosales · Alberto Anculle-Arenas · Natty Wilma Llasaca-Calizaya · José Luis Bustamante-Muñoz · Mayela Elizabeth Mayta-Anco
Within the context of climate change, quinoa ( Chenopodium quinoa Willd.) is a climate-resilient crop with high nutritional value. The effects of deficit irrigation on quinoa growth and physiological performance under arid conditions remain insufficiently understood. This study evaluated ten quinoa genotypes (two commercial varieties and eight accessions) under two irrigation regimes to identify traits and spectral indices associated with water-stress tolerance. We combined manual phenotyping of agromorphological and physiological traits with multispectral and spectroradiometer measurements to calculate 35 vegetation indices across 13 and 5 dates, respectively. Deficit irrigation reduced plant height (18%), specific leaf area (8%), yield (43%), harvest index (26%), relative water content (7%), and dry matter accumulation (36%), while relative chlorophyll content (SPAD, Soil Plant Analysis Development) and stomatal density increased by 16% and 13%, respectively; accession ACC_23 exhibited the highest water-use efficiency (5.9 g kg -1 ). A univariate analysis of 35 vegetation indices across 13 dates showed that: Health Index(HIV), Normalized Green-Red Difference Index (NGRD), Red-Green Ratio (RG) and Plant Senescence Reflectance Index (PSRI), were the most sensitive, detecting significant differences between irrigation treatments in up to 32 of the 130 possible genotype-by-date comparisons. Integrating remote sensing into crop phenotyping represented a significant methodological improvement by enhancing phenotyping efficiency, improving detection of deficit irrigation effects, and facilitating identification of tolerant quinoa genotypes for arid production systems.
Fuente D, Zapata R, Martínez-Heras E, Raigón MD, Oliver-Villanueva JV.
Field / plotLeafStem / branchPhysiological trait estimationGrowth / time-series analysisStress response / toleranceWater status / transpiration
Live fuel moisture content is a key determinant of live fuel flammability, yet its destructive and discontinuous measurement limits high-temporal-resolution monitoring. This study evaluated whether leaf electrical potential can serve as a non-invasive proxy for LFMC and flammability-related traits under natural drought conditions. From February to July 2025, leaf and trunk electrical potentials were monitored weekly in Salvia rosmarinus individuals from a Mediterranean shrubland, while LFMC, essential oil yield, fatty-acid fraction, and laboratory-based flammability metrics-ignition time, combustion duration, and flame height-were assessed bi-weekly. Leaf electrical potential was strongly associated with LFMC (R 2 = 0.64, p < 0.001), decreasing as plants underwent seasonal drought-induced dehydration. Periods of high temperature and low rainfall reduced both LFMC and electrical potential, coinciding with shorter ignition times, which declined to approximately 20-30 s during the driest period. Based on the observed shifts in ignition time, combustion duration, and flame height, three empirical LFMC response zones were identified, with leaf electrical potential closely tracking transitions in plant hydration and flammability. These results suggest that plant electrophysiology may provide a promising non-invasive indicator of live fuel water status and seasonal flammability dynamics, with potential applications in wildfire risk monitoring when combined with conventional LFMC, meteorological, and remote-sensing approaches.
Starch, a key biological macromolecule accounting for 50-80% of dry weight in sweetpotato (Ipomoea batatas [L.] Lam.) storage roots, underpins food and industrial applications. However, sweetpotato starch characterization is limited by local-sectioning approaches that fail to capture the whole-root granule dynamics. Here, we established a new morphological observation system covering three key root regions based on two representative cultivars: Okinawa 100 (V100), and Yanshu25 (Y25). It was effective and convenient for in situ starch observation and analysis in sweetpotato roots. The whole-root in situ microscopy, starch physicochemical profiling, and transcriptomic correlation were integrated to resolve starch dynamics in Y25 and V100. We identified widespread simple starch granules (SSGs)-compound starch granule (CSG) coexistence across the whole root tissues, with Y25 exhibiting programmed CSG fragmentation driven by ARCs/FtsZ-mediated amyloplast envelope destabilization and concomitant AMY/BMY upregulation. Y25 had a higher amylose content and a higher proportion of medium/long chains, but the average degree of polymerization was slightly lower. Transcriptomic analyses revealed that the differentially expressed genes were annotated in pathways of carbohydrate metabolism, and the differentially expressed genes in the starch metabolism pathway were analyzed. Weighted gene co-expression network analysis further identified the hub genes from different modules and analyzed the co-expression networks. This work will not only advance the understanding of starch granule assembly and remodeling in sweetpotato, but also provide a robust methodological and transcriptome-guided framework for starch-focused germplasm screening and quality improvement.
LiDAR (Light Detection and Ranging) and RGB-D camera imaging have emerged as essential tools in agricultural applications, particularly for plant size and distance measurements, enabling non-destructive, cost-effective, and precise estimation. The objective of this study was to measure the plant canopy dimensions and distance between apples using commercial LiDAR, and an RGB-D camera with a speed sprayer platform was used to determine whether LiDAR provides a higher measurement accuracy under field conditions. Data were collected in an apple orchard in Muju, Republic of Korea. Commercial 3D LiDAR, a terminal box, an RGB-D camera, a microcontroller, a power supply, and individual display monitors were integrated into a customized data acquisition (DAQ) box for LiDAR point cloud (PCD), RGB, and depth imagery data collection. Commercial software was used for data acquisition, data conversion (pcap to PCD), segmentation of regions of interest (ROI), and pre-processing of data. PCD processing and measurement consisted of data frame selection, data conversion, outlier removal, downsampling, denoising, ground point removal by filtering, voxelization, and density map generation using an open access programming language script. Depth image processing included importing raw data, shaping metadata using intrinsic camera parameters, visualizing depth images, extracting depth points, and measuring the plant canopy at the pixel level. RGB image analysis involved grayscale conversion, thresholding, segmentation of ROI, contour preparation, noise removal, and binary masking for eliminating the background. Estimated results were compared to measured results. LiDAR measurements showed the closest agreement with the measured results for plant height, canopy volume, plant spacing, and row distance, outperforming both RGB and depth imaging. Under field conditions, plant spacing and row distance were estimated with accuracies of 97.5% and 94.7%, respectively, exhibiting higher measurement accuracies than RGB and depth imagery data results. Despite some discrepancies due to complex plant geometry and dynamic data collection, the results support data collection strategies critical for precision horticulture.
Field / plotLiDAR / point cloudStem / branchYield / biomass estimationBiomass / plant weight
Integrating ground-based and aerial remote sensing for individual tree-level stem volume modeling remains underexplored in Mediterranean mixed forests, despite the growing need for cost-effective, automated forest inventory approaches. This study evaluated the combined use of Handheld Laser Scanning (HLS) and Unmanned Aerial Vehicle (UAV)-based Structure from Motion (SfM) photogrammetry for individual-tree stem volume modeling in a mixed stand in Castilla y León, Spain, dominated by Pinus halepensis, Pinus pinea, Quercus faginea, and Cupressus sempervirens. Two open-source HLS processing tools; the Forest Structural Complexity Tool (FSCT) and 3D Forest Inventory (3DFin), were compared for individual tree attribute extraction, with FSCT outperforming 3DFin across all species. Reference stem volumes were derived by applying species-specific Spanish National Forest Inventory (SNFI) allometric equations to FSCT-extracted diameter and height values. Random Forest models were then built using UAV-SfM crown metrics as predictors, testing two image overlap configurations: 80 × 80 F (80% front and side overlap) and 80 × 60 CF (80% front, 60% side, cross-flight). The 80 × 80 F configuration produced the best-performing model (R2 = 0.730), with 80 × 60 CF achieving comparable accuracy (R2 = 0.688), results confirmed by spatially independent leave-one-plot-out cross-validation (LOPO-CV R2 = 0.627 and 0.613, respectively). These results show that combining HLS and UAV-SfM through a predominantly open-source workflow offers a viable, reproducible approach to stem volume modeling in structurally complex Mediterranean mixed forests.
Crop straw-to-grain ratio (SGR) estimation underpins regional straw resource assessment, yet national inventories rely on fixed coefficients that ignore structured variation across variety, environment, and phenotype. We introduce a Structured Multi-Kernel Heteroscedastic Gaussian Process (GP) framework that models SGR variation through three additive kernels heuristically motivated by the genotype–environment–phenotype (G+E+P) framework—capturing variety-associated variation, spatially structured variation, and environmental and management covariates—and employs an input-dependent noise model for prediction-specific uncertainty quantification. To prevent information leakage, target encoding and feature scaling are recomputed within each cross-validation fold. Evaluated via internal leave-one-out cross-validation on 80 rice samples (42 varieties, six Chinese provinces), the model achieves R2=0.541 with a prediction interval coverage probability of 0.95. Ablation identifies variety-associated variation as the largest contributor among the modeled factors (ΔR2=−0.024) and the multi-kernel design, by incorporating variety-specific information, substantially improves upon a covariate-only RBF GP (ΔR2=0.103). On point-prediction accuracy, Gradient Boosting achieves R2=0.58, slightly ahead of the Heteroscedastic GP (R2=0.54), underscoring that the primary advantage of the GP lies in its input-dependent uncertainty quantification. However, leave-one-county-out validation yields R2≈0 (with σ escalating to 24.4), confirming that the model does not yet generalize to unsampled counties; all reported performance is therefore internal to the nine sampled counties. The framework couples an agronomically motivated additive kernel structure with input-dependent uncertainty quantification, offering a path toward uncertainty-aware prediction from small field datasets.
Semi-arid rangelands support livelihoods and key ecosystem services, yet sustainable management depends on accurate and scalable monitoring of herbaceous aboveground biomass (AGB). Field-based measurements are spatially limited, while satellite-derived vegetation indices often perform poorly in complex savanna systems such as the Kalahari. Using unoccupied aerial vehicle (UAV) structure-from-motion (SfM) photogrammetry, we evaluate the ability of fine-scale canopy height and spectral reflectance metrics to predict herbaceous biomass across a grazing intensity gradient. Canopy height consistently predicted AGB across all grazing levels, whereas normalised difference vegetation index (NDVI) effects were weak and grazing-dependent. The UAV-derived canopy height showed strong relationships with total herbaceous AGB, explaining up to 72% of observed variation, whereas vegetation greenness measured using NDVI showed limited predictive power. In contrast, predicting biomass of foraging importance proved challenging, with UAV-derived structural and spectral metrics explaining only a small proportion of variation. Together, these findings highlight the value of UAV-derived structural measurements over traditional spectral indices for fine-scale rangeland monitoring in semi-arid systems, while underscoring the limitations of current UAV-based spectral and structural metrics for assessing forage value across species and sites.
Semi-arid rangelands support livelihoods and key ecosystem services, yet sustainable management depends on accurate and scalable monitoring of herbaceous aboveground biomass (AGB). Field-based measurements are spatially limited, while satellite-derived vegetation indices often perform poorly in complex savanna systems such as the Kalahari. Using unoccupied aerial vehicle (UAV) structure-from-motion (SfM) photogrammetry, we evaluate the ability of fine-scale canopy height and spectral reflectance metrics to predict herbaceous biomass across a grazing intensity gradient. Canopy height consistently predicted AGB across all grazing levels, whereas normalised difference vegetation index (NDVI) effects were weak and grazing-dependent. The UAV-derived canopy height showed strong relationships with total herbaceous AGB, explaining up to 72% of observed variation, whereas vegetation greenness measured using NDVI showed limited predictive power. In contrast, predicting biomass of foraging importance proved challenging, with UAV-derived structural and spectral metrics explaining only a small proportion of variation. Together, these findings highlight the value of UAV-derived structural measurements over traditional spectral indices for fine-scale rangeland monitoring in semi-arid systems, while underscoring the limitations of current UAV-based spectral and structural metrics for assessing forage value across species and sites.
Phosphorus (P) deficiency severely limits soybean ( Glycine max L.) productivity. This study proposed a three-stage screening framework to identify reliable traits and P-efficient genotypes. In Experiment I, percent tolerance to phosphorus deficiency (PTPD) was calculated for ten growth parameters across 98 genotypes under P-deficient and control conditions. Principal component analysis and comprehensive evaluation identified six key indicators in Experiment I, which were subsequently refined to five indicators through further analysis: SPAD at V3 and R1, photosynthetic rate at R1, shoot dry weight at R8, and seed number per plant at R8. Experiment II re-evaluated these traits using 12 contrasting genotypes under three P levels, identifying CN 15 as the most P-efficient and SN 22 as the most P-inefficient. Experiment III further revealed that CN 15 maintained superior PSII performance and exhibited a 26.2% increase in grain P-utilization efficiency under 0 µM KH 2 PO 4 treatment. This integrated framework offers a preliminary reference for screening P-efficient soybean genotypes under controlled conditions, pending field evaluation.
Leaf chlorophyll content (LCC) is a key indicator for assessing the photosynthetic capacity and nutritional status of winter wheat. Among traditional LCC estimation methods, empirical models lack a physical basis and have poor generalisability, while physical models are widely applicable but suffer from ill-posed inversion problems. Hybrid inversion methods, which integrate radiation transfer models such as PROSAIL with machine learning, offer both the interpretability of physical models and the efficiency of machine learning; however, they are still affected by the domain shift between simulated and measured data, which limits their generalisation performance. Transfer Component Analysis (TCA), a domain adaption method, can effectively alleviate this problem. In this study, hyperspectral and LCC data were collected in the field, and simulated data were generated using the PROSAIL model; a sensitivity analysis was conducted to identify LCC-sensitive bands. A genetic algorithm was applied to the measured data for band selection and, together with the results of the sensitivity analysis, yielded an optimal set of 30 characteristic bands for subsequent modelling. Three datasets were constructed: measured data only, a direct mixture of measured and simulated data, and a TCA-fused mixture of measured and simulated data. Four models-gradient boosting regression (GBR), random forest (RF), support vector regression (SVR) and deep neural network (DNN)-were developed for each dataset. The results show that: (1) the LCC-sensitive bands are concentrated in the 450-660 nm and 680-720 nm ranges; (2) the model built on the TCA-fused data (R² = 0.722, RMSE = 6.792) outperformed those built on the measured-only data (R² = 0.682, RMSE = 7.259) and the directly mixed data (R² = 0.616, RMSE = 7.976); (3) for the TCA-fused data, the four models differed considerably in accuracy, with SVR performing best (R² = 0.723, RMSE = 5.363), followed by RF (R² = 0.630, RMSE = 6.201) and GBR (R² = 0.575, RMSE = 6.650), whereas the DNN performed worst (R² = 0.388, RMSE = 7.947), probably owing to the limited sample size.
Nano- and microplastics (NMPs) are now widely detected across agroecosystems and can act as physiological stressors in plants. Exposure occurs through contaminated soil, irrigation water, or airborne deposition, bringing particles into direct contact with roots and above-ground tissues. Reported entry routes include apoplastic transport, cracks formed at lateral root emergence, leaf stomata, and endocytosis once particles have crossed the cell wall. Once internalized, particles may translocate through the xylem and, in some cases, the phloem, accumulating in roots, stems, and leaves depending on particle size, surface charge, and plant structural characteristics. NMPs have been associated with oxidative stress, disrupted photosynthesis, and altered metabolic pathways. Detecting NMPs within heterogeneous, hydrated plant tissues remains challenging, as particles often show low contrast against biological structures and can be mistaken for cellular components. This review examines how microscopy techniques reveal NMPs size, surface attachment, tissue distribution, and cellular-level interactions, while noting that these approaches primarily provide morphological or localization information rather than confirming polymer identity. Complementary spectroscopic and mass-based analytical methods are discussed for their role in chemical confirmation and quantification. This review supports informed selection among imaging, spectroscopic, and quantitative techniques for studying plant-plastic interactions, while highlighting current analytical challenges facing the field.
The precise identification of microspore and pollen at the optimal developmental stages to be induced towards embryogenesis (vacuolated microspores and young pollen) is essential for induction of in vitro androgenesis in plants. Such identification is not always easy, and it is especially difficult in recalcitrant species such as Vicia faba . The present study evaluates the relationship between floral bud and anther morphometric parameters, and microspore/pollen developmental stages in V. faba using various methods including fluorescent staining, differential interference contrast microscopy, and morphometry. We measured flower bud and anther length and width, grouping them at different intervals, and performed a detailed microscopical and anatomical analysis of buds, anthers and microspores/pollen at different stages. Our results demonstrated that flower buds in V. faba exhibit complex and irregular morphologies, with considerable variation in both sepal length and shape. Furthermore, the determination of microspore and pollen developmental stages in this species is constrained by pronounced developmental asynchrony and strong genotype dependence. Although anther length measurements correlate closely with microspore and pollen developmental stages, their practical use can be challenging. Therefore, measuring flower bud length, while excluding sepals, remains the most practical criterion for routine applications. Combining this refined morphometric approach with microscopic validation appears to be the most effective strategy for improving the identification of flower buds containing microspores or pollen at developmental stages suitable for androgenesis induction in this recalcitrant legume species.
TomatoLiDAR / point cloudLeafMorphology / geometry measurementSegmentationLeaf traits
Leaf parameters are crucial indicators reflecting the growing status of plants. Monitoring and analysis of leaf parameters significantly contributes to the improvement of crop yield and food quality. This study focused on three tomato plant varieties commonly grown in the Netherlands and proposed a fully automatic pipeline for leaf phenotyping. Three-dimensional (3D) point clouds of target plants were acquired with a specially designed imaging unit naming Maxi-Marvin. A semantic segmentation of plant organs was performed with PointNet++ model. To mitigate point cloud resolution decrement, the down-sampling operation in the baseline model was replaced with a distributed segmentation strategy. Leaf instances were further identified with Density-Based Spatial Clustering of Applications with Noise (DBSCAN), followed by a morphological phenotypic trait quantification based on 3D geometrical analysis. Target phenotypic traits including leaf length, leaf width, and leaf area. The evaluation results indicated that the distributed segmentation strategy achieved the best F 1 scores of 0.98 with block size set to 30,000. The Mean Average Errors (MAE) of leaf length, leaf width, and leaf area estimation were 2.09 cm, 1.78 cm and 8.98 cm 2 respectively. The estimation accuracies for leaf length, leaf width, and leaf area were 91.98%, 92.66%, and 89.67%, respectively.
Reproduction assets foundThe paper's tomato point cloud dataset (with semantic and leaf instance annotations used for the phenotyping pipeline) is publicly available on Kaggle via a footnote. NPEC website is a facility page, and Open3D is a generic library, so neither qualifies.Dataset · public2. ^ The dataset used in this study is available at: https://www.kaggle.com/datasets/xinbolai/vtc-tomatoOpen asset ↗Kaggle · xinbolai/vtc-tomatolines:545-624Code / dataset availability confirmedEurope PMC · checked 14 Sept 2026
Reliable traits are needed for identification of tea ( Camellia sinensis ) cultivars, yet the stability of leaf morphology and color across leaf positions remains unclear. This study evaluated inter-cultivar variation and positional stability in leaf morphological, RGB color, and SPAD traits in six predominant cultivars. One-year-old shoots were sampled in a completely randomized design, and five fully expanded leaves below the apical bud were analyzed. SPAD values were measured with a chlorophyll meter, and scanned images were used to extract contour and RGB traits. Data were analyzed using ANOVA, correlation analysis, PCA, and discriminant analysis. Leaf morphology differed among cultivars and leaf positions, with significant cultivar-by-position interactions; however, the width-to-length ratio differed among cultivars but remained stable across positions in these cultivars. SPAD values increased with leaf position and were strongly associated with RGB components, being negatively correlated with R and G and positively correlated with B. Morphological traits explained 52.988% of total variance in PCA and yielded 64.6% overall classification accuracy, with LaoHan showing the highest accuracy (83.3%). Misclassification was concentrated among genetically similar cultivars. These findings suggest that stable leaf shape proportions and SPAD-RGB relationships provide useful descriptors, whereas genetic relatedness limits morphology-based cultivar identification under the present conditions.
Reproduction assets found保存済みの本文根拠を更新済みルールで再検証し、公開資産1件を確認しました。Dataset · publicThe following supporting information can be downloaded at https://www.mdpi.com/article/10.3390/biology15151283/s1 , Table S1: Original data of leaf morphological traits, RGB values, and SPAD values from six tea cultivars in this study.Open asset ↗lines:368-409Plant phenotyping relevance matchEurope PMC · checked 15 Sept 2026
Root lodging, the agronomic term for plant mechanical failure, causes yield loss in crops, including maize. Brace roots can provide structural support and assist in preventing root lodging. While the mechanics of brace roots (e.g., stiffness and strength) can play a role in their ability to prevent root lodging, there has been limited characterization of individual brace root mechanical properties. Methods to quantify root mechanics can thus be useful for characterizing maize mechanical traits and breeding new varieties with improved root anchorage and lodging resistance. Here, we describe a protocol for evaluating mechanical properties of maize brace roots. Specifically, we outline the steps necessary to perform three-point bend mechanical testing of maize brace roots using an Instron Universal Testing Stand. We describe root preparation, instrument setup, method establishment, testing, and data analysis. While we exemplify the protocol using maize brace roots, the approach can be adapted for assessing the mechanics of other plants or root types.
Accurate identification and effective prediction of the maize tasseling stage are of great significance for guiding precision field management and ensuring stable crop yields. Conventional manual observation methods suffer from high labor intensity, poor timeliness, and strong subjectivity. In this study, based on an unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV) remote sensing platform, LiDAR point cloud data and RGB imagery were simultaneously acquired to construct digital surface models (DSMs) and digital terrain models (DTMs). Multi-dimensional statistical features were extracted to establish a high-precision plant height estimation method applicable to the entire growth cycle of maize. On this basis, the Logistic growth curve function was introduced to fit the dynamic changes in plant height, enabling the identification and early prediction of the maize tasseling stage based on the plant height growth curve. The research results indicate the following: (1) For maize plant height estimation, the LiDAR sensor outperforms RGB. The optimal accuracy is achieved by combining the 99th percentile of DSM with the minimum DTM, yielding a root mean square error (RMSE) of 0.17 m. (2) Based on the high-accuracy plant height time series, the point of inflection (POI) achieves the highest accuracy in tasseling stage identification, with an RMSE of 2.586 d under the reconstructed time series. (3) Prediction accuracy of the tasseling stage improves with increasing plant height threshold, and optimal performance is observed when the threshold is ≥1.6 m with a growth rate between 0.11 and 0.13. This study establishes a technical framework of "time-series perception-dynamic simulation-feature identification-early prediction", providing a scientific basis for automated monitoring and precision management of the maize tasseling stage. It holds significant theoretical and practical value for the advancement of smart agriculture and crop phenotyping research.
Apoplastic pH dynamically regulates plant intercellular communication, but its measurement in internal tissues, such as the vasculature, remains technically challenging. Here, we present a protocol for ratiometric quantification of apoplastic pH in Arabidopsis seedlings using genetically encoded sensors. We describe seedling preparation, confocal imaging, and ratiometric image processing. Companion cell-specific expression of the pH sensor enables apoplastic pH readouts in the vasculature and supports in vivo comparative analyses of apoplastic pH across genotypes, treatments, and growth conditions in young seedlings. For complete details on the use and execution of this protocol, please refer to Xiong et al. 1 .
Idesia polycarpa Maxim. is a premier woody oil species in Guizhou Province, China, whose fruit yield and oil quality largely depend on effective pollination and fertilization. However, limited research on pollen viability and germination has hindered industrial progress. To address this gap, a comprehensive evaluation framework for elite I. polycarpa germplasm was developed, integrating micromorphological analysis, optimized staining protocols, and in vitro germination assay. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) revealed that I. polycarpa pollen, while genetically conserved at the genus level-characterized by prolate shapes, tricolporate apertures, and reticulate exine ornamentation-exhibits notable micromorphological variation among genotypes. Of the nine staining protocols tested (2,3,5-triphenyl tetrazolium chloride [TTC], carbol fuchsin, acetocarmine, methylene blue, Alexander, peroxidase, 2,5-diphenylmonotetrazolium bromide [MTT], I2-KI, and red ink), TTC and red ink were the most effective, offering clear chromatic distinction between viable and non-viable pollen. Through orthogonal experimental designs, genotype-specific optimal media for in vitro germination were identified: 0.40 g/L H3BO3, 0.01 g/L KNO3, 0.02 g/L Ca(NO3)2·4H2O, and 0.20 g/L KH2PO4 for STZ-6; and 0.20 g/L H3BO3, 0.02 g/L KNO3, 0.02 g/L Ca(NO3)2·4H2O, and 0.10 g/L KH2PO4 for STZ-9. Regression analysis confirmed a highly significant positive correlation (P < 0.01) between in vitro germination rates and the staining results from both TTC and red ink across various concentrations. Notably, 5% TTC and 30% red ink exhibited the highest coefficients of determination. A hierarchical evaluation strategy is thus proposed: the 5% TTC method is recommended for precise laboratory quantification due to its stability, while the 30% red ink method, due to its ease of use, is suited for rapid field-based screening. This study provides valuable insights into the morphological characteristics of I. polycarpa pollen and establishes a standardized evaluation framework, supporting germplasm innovation and optimizing pollination management.
Reproduction assets foundThe article's Data Availability statement points to a public Biostudies deposit containing the study's data (pollen morphology measurements, staining viability counts, and in vitro germination results). No author analysis code or trained models are mentioned.Dataset · publicData Availability: The data that support the findings of this study are openly available in Biostudies at https://doi.org/10.6019/S-BSST3125 .Open asset ↗Biostudies · S-BSST3125lines:176-186Plant phenotyping relevance matchOpenAlex · checked 14 Sept 2026
Amino acids are important nutrients in maize grain used for food and feed. Because all 20 amino acids are required for growth and development, a deficiency in a single essential amino acid limits the utilization of dietary protein. In monogastric animals, 10 amino acids must be supplied by the diet and therefore are considered essential. The remaining amino acids can be made from the 10 essential amino acids. Lysine, tryptophan, and methionine are frequently limiting essential amino acids in grain-based diets. Therefore, increasing levels of limiting essential amino acids in grain is an important objective in crop improvement. Standard chromatographic methods for assessing levels of amino acids in grain are extremely accurate, but very expensive. Here, we present a protocol for high-throughput analysis of amino acids in grains, using microbial assays, conducted in 96 well plates, that can be carried out for a fraction of the cost of the standard chromatographic methods. We use Escherichia coli strains that have mutations in the biosynthetic pathway of the amino acid of interest. These strains are auxotrophic, so their growth is proportional to the amount of a specific amino acid in the media. The level of the amino acid of interest in a corn extract is determined by adding the corn extract to the microbial growth medium and measuring the growth of the culture as turbidity in a 96 well plate reader. This protocol is designed for analysis of methionine, but can be adapted for the analysis of any amino acid, by substitution of an appropriate auxotrophic strain of E. coli .
Grain quality is defined as the suitability of grain for a particular use. It is usually designated by chemical composition or physical properties of the grain. The ability to measure grain quality is important for identity preservation of specialty grain market classes, for development of new varieties with improved quality through breeding, and for basic scientific studies on the genetic or biochemical control of grain quality traits. This review introduces official methods for measuring maize compositional traits, including protein, starch, oil, amino acid, phytate, and phosphorus content. Additionally, we discuss two nonofficial methods: measuring phytate and available phosphorus levels, and assessing amino acid balance. Phytate and available phosphorous impact the mineral nutrition of grain, while amino acid balance reflects the value of grain as a protein source and the bioavailability of protein. We also describe the use of near-infrared spectroscopy (NIRS) to assess levels of various compounds in maize. NIRS relies on the fact that compounds with differing molecular properties uniquely interact with the near-infrared region (750-2500 nm) of the electromagnetic radiation spectrum, and thus, generate spectral information that can be used to develop calibration models/equations for predicting the concentration of the compounds in grain samples. We discuss how sensitivity, accuracy, precision, throughput, and cost influence the choice of assay used to assess grain quality. Furthermore, we discuss how appropriate experimental design and data analysis can improve analytical outcomes when assessing grain quality.
• Development of yellow color index (YCI) for yield estimation at flowering stage • Development of web-based interface (YCPM-UAV) for canola yield prediction using UAVs • Global application capability for UAVs datasets to predict canola yield using YCPM-UAV • Multi-sensor and multi-spectrum data fusion to find most suited indices for canola • Multiple and stepwise regression analysis for selection of most influencing VIs Canola ( Brassica napus L.) is a globally significant oilseed crop, yet accurate yield estimation remains challenging due to the complex and unique nature of the crop, especially at the flowering stage. Traditional field-based yield estimation methods are labor-intensive, time-consuming, and destructive, necessitating innovative approaches for early and non-destructive yield prediction. The main objective of the study is to develop a novel web-based platform, YCPM-UAV (Yellow Color Prediction Model using Unmanned Aerial Vehicles), for early and accurate canola yield estimation using high-resolution multi-sensor datasets acquired through low-altitude UAVs (LA-UAVs). To achieve this objective, a comprehensive two-year field study (2022-2024) was conducted across ten farmers’ fields in different geographical locations. Multisensor data (RGB, multispectral, and thermal) were acquired using UAVs at seven growth stages. Several vegetation indices (VIs), yellow color-based indices, and a thermal index were calculated. Linear, multiple, and stepwise regression analyses were performed to evaluate relationships of remote sensing indices with ground-truth yield data collected from 1200 sampling points. Multiple and stepwise regression analyses indicated that the newly developed Yellow Color Index (YCI) exhibited the strongest correlation with actual canola yield at the flowering stage across both years (Year 1: R 2 = 0.84, RMSE = 39.30 g m⁻²; Year 2: R² = 0.88, RMSE = 31.57 g m⁻²). Based on proposed predictive modeling, the YCPM-UAV web interface was developed, featuring automated data processing and spatial analysis with a testing accuracy of 88%. The YCPM-UAV platform provides farmers, researchers, and policymakers with a timely, user-friendly, and actionable decision-support tool for canola yield estimation at the field scale, contributing to improved crop management and food security. Future studies should incorporate additional canola varieties, irrigated and non-irrigated fields, and deep learning algorithms to further improve model robustness.
Lei Li · Jindong Liu · Guoliang Wan · Hongqing Wang · Mengjiao Yang · Shuaipeng Fei · Duoxia Wang · Yong Zhang · Xianchun Xia · Xin Ma · Yong He · Yonggui Xiao
The extent of canopy coverage (CC) prior to the booting stage is a useful indicator of environmental adaptation and may help anticipate key developmental events such as heading and flowering. We used UAV-based high-throughput phenotyping to monitor CC in a 262-line F 8 recombinant inbred line population grown under four irrigation-year environments across two seasons. To quantify CC dynamics, we fitted regression models using either days after sowing (DAS) or accumulated active temperature (AT). These models showed a high goodness-of-fit (overall coefficient of determination ( R 2 ) > 0.90 across environments; per-timepoint prediction R 2 = 0.60‒0.99 with root mean squared error (RMSE) = 0.00‒0.02) and were used to derive 31 CC-related traits. Principal component analysis (PCA) showed that the first two components explained 80.00% of total variance in CC traits, with PCA1 accounting for 48.88%‒62.51% of the variance for DAS-based traits and 50.26%‒54.93% for AT-based traits. PCA1 reflected early canopy vigor and rapid coverage increase, while PCA2 reflected canopy maintenance after jointing. Genotypes in the top 15% for PCA1 differed significantly in flowering time, heading time, and plant height from those in the bottom 15%. Cross-environment comparisons showed moderate to high consistency of CC traits (average correlation ( r ) = 0.41‒0.65 for DAS-standardized CC of 20‒160 DAS and 0.48‒0.67 for AT-standardized CC of 100‒1000 AT). Using CC features derived from both DAS and AT, we trained a random forest model to predict flowering time, highlighting the contribution of both temporal and thermal information to predictive accuracy. This model achieved an independent test set R 2 of 0.81 with an RMSE of 1.25 days within the current dataset. All 31 CC-derived traits were also used for QTL mapping. Inclusive composite interval mapping identified 156 QTL detection events across 15 chromosomes (0.80%‒27.70% phenotypic variance explained), which were consolidated into 26 QTL regions, including loci such as QCC.caas.7A (671.47‒680.09 Mb on 7A) and QCC.caas.5D2 (426.67‒459.42 Mb on 5D). Several of these regions co-localized with previously reported genes associated with tillering, flowering time, winter hardiness and plant height. These findings indicate that CC, characterized by DAS- and AT-based traits, is genetically tractable and predictive of flowering within the current dataset, supporting its potential as a phenology-related trait for wheat improvement. Further validation across broader environments, years, and genetic backgrounds will be needed before broader application.
Cover crops offer essential agroecosystem benefits, including reduced soil erosion, weed suppression, and improved soil health. Aboveground biomass (AGB) is a key indicator of these benefits; however, field-based quantification is often limited, which hinders effective cover crop management decisions. This study integrated unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV)-based multispectral imagery with machine learning (ML) models to estimate AGB in cover crops across two water-limited regions of Texas. Ground-truth and imagery data were collected over three years (2023–2025) for winter rye ( Secale cereale L.) in Lamesa and two years (2023–2024) for winter wheat ( Triticum aestivum L.) in Chillicothe under varying irrigation regimes. Five ML algorithms, random forest, support vector regression, extreme gradient boosting, partial least squares regression (PLSR), and artificial neural network (ANN), were evaluated across four individual and eleven feature fusion datasets. The ANN model consistently achieved the highest predictive accuracy, particularly when vegetation indices were combined with structural features (R² = 0.87, RMSE = 9.08 g m - ²), while PLSR showed the weakest performance. Grouped validation (leave-one-year-out, leave-one-species-out, and leave-one-treatment-out) revealed reduced model performance compared to random (70/30) splitting of pooled data, yet the ANN maintained moderate predictive ability, indicating reasonable generalizability across years, species, and management conditions. Shapley additive explanations (SHAP) revealed key predictors in the ANN model, including plant height, chlorophyll vegetation index, chlorophyll sensitive index, blue band reflectance, modified chlorophyll absorption in reflectance index, dissimilarity, correlation, and enhanced green vegetation index. These findings demonstrate the effectiveness of UAV-ML integration for accurate AGB estimation and highlight the potential for scalable, data-driven cover crop monitoring in water-limited environments and beyond.
Ripe tomato fruit display diverse 3D morphologies driven by genetics, environment, and management, yet these differences remain hard to quantify in the absence of precise point-cloud segmentation tools. This paper proposes the VMSNet to accurately segment tomato fruits and extract phenotypic traits based on the segmentation results, including horizontal and vertical diameters. Point clouds are obtained through depth cameras. After preprocessing and labeling the fruits, a dataset is established using global enhancement and local enhancement. On the base framework of PointNet++, the downsampling method was replaced, a multi-scale attention module (MS_A) was integrated, the combination scheduling strategy was optimized, and VMSNet was constructed. Following segmentation, the fruit growth direction is estimated by density-weighted method, and principal component analysis (PCA) is used to establish a rotation plane. By rotating according to the slicing angle, the fruit point cloud is completed and fitted into an ellipsoid. Random Sample Consensus (RANSAC) is used to smooth the outliers. The OBB is applied to extract the horizontal and vertical diameters, which are compared with measurement to verify the algorithm’s accuracy. The results indicate that the accuracy of VMSNet in segmenting ripe tomato fruits is 97.96%. The correlation coefficients R 2 between the calculated and measured values of the horizontal and vertical diameters reached 0.89 and 0.86, respectively. This proposed proposal provides robust point cloud segmentation and completion for phenotypic analysis for other same species greenhouse crop.
Biomass is a key trait in pasture plant breeding and agronomy, but measuring Dry Matter Yield or Fresh Weight across large numbers of samples is labour intensive and costly. Efficient biomass assessment systems must balance accuracy, speed, and cost, while ideally enabling non-destructive measurements. We developed a rapid, real-time, non-destructive, and remotely controlled LiDAR-based platform to estimate biomass in grass monocultures by measuring sward height at high spatial resolution. The system operates under ambient light conditions at a ground speed of 2.7 km per hour. It was evaluated in small-plot perennial ryegrass trials at two field sites in New Zealand, across two seasons at site A and one season at site B. At site A, correlations between LiDAR-derived height and fresh weight ranged from 0.33 to 0.74 across individual measurement cycles, with an overall multilevel R² of 0.72. At site B, the multilevel correlation increased to R² = 0.88. Weekly LiDAR scans at site B were used to estimate plot-level growth rates for 60 plots, demonstrating improved temporal resolution. Statistically significant differences in growth rate within regrowth cycles were detected among plots. The platform reliably differentiates perennial ryegrass plots based on biomass and offers higher temporal resolution than traditional methods.
Accurate monitoring of cotton plant moisture content (PMC) is crucial for guiding irrigation practices. To address the limited capacity of single-source remote sensing data to characterize the water status of cotton plants, as well as the lack of quantitative reference values for suitable PMC levels at different growth stages, this study constructed a cotton PMC estimation model based on multimodal UAV remote sensing data. Furthermore, the suitable reference levels of PMC at different growth stages were investigated according to the response relationship between PMC and yield at each growth stage. Five soil moisture gradients were established, and at each growth stage, fresh and dry weights of cotton shoots were measured to calculate the PMC. A UAV platform equipped with multiple sensors was used to collect visible-light (RGB), multispectral (MS), and thermal infrared (TIR) images of the cotton canopy. Three feature selection methods were employed to identify moisture-sensitive parameters: Pearson correlation analysis, principal component analysis (PCA) for dimensionality reduction, and recursive feature elimination (RFE). Using the selected parameters, four machine learning algorithms, AdaBoost, random forest (RF), CatBoost, and k-nearest neighbors (KNN), were applied to construct and validate PMC estimation models. The suitable PMC levels at different growth stages were identified based on the response relationship between measured PMC and yield under different water gradients. The results showed that the RFE feature selection method identified eight water-sensitive parameters, and the CatBoost model integrating multimodal data performed best, with R² and RMSE reaching 0.807 and 0.033%, respectively, on the test set, providing a reliable method for high-resolution spatial mapping of field-scale PMC. On this basis, the response of yield to PMC was analyzed, revealing that when PMC was maintained at 83.8%, 85.9%, 79.3%, 78.0%, and 67.7% at the bud, initial flowering, peak flowering, peak boll-setting, and boll opening stages, respectively, the theoretical maximum yield of 6579–6667 kg/hm² could be achieved. This study realized high-precision remote sensing monitoring of PMC and further explored the appropriate moisture content thresholds for different growth stages, providing a quantitative reference for precision water regulation in cotton fields.
Japanese agriculture faces pressing challenges, including a declining and aging farming population and the need to adapt to climate change. To address these issues, Smart Agriculture is being introduced to improve production efficiency. Among these, unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) have gained attention for their ability to rapidly monitor entire fields. We proposed a machine learning-based crop growth diagnosis system that generates spatiotemporal data for multiple vegetation indices (VIs) using the quartile method and diagnoses crop growth based on patterns of change in these values. The experimental site consisted of five paddy fields within an 80 m × 50 m plot in Iwate Prefecture, Japan, equipped with weather and water sensors. Ground-truth data (overall length, culm length, panicle number, and stem number) were collected approximately one week before harvest. UAV monitoring was conducted four times using a multispectral camera, and growth analysis was performed with six VIs. Correlation analysis revealed a positive relationship between crop growth and the daily average water level during the drainage period, and a negative relationship with the daily temperature range in mid-June. A combined cluster-label representation, constructed from clustering results of all VIs for each mesh, enabled integrated analysis and visualization of multi-index patterns. Grid size optimization showed no significant differences in correlation trends between 1 m × 1 m and 5 m × 5 m resolutions. For non-crop area removal, a comparison of three image segmentation methods demonstrated that the Otsu Method achieved the highest performance. Finally, to facilitate practical use in the field, we prototyped a report interface for the diagnosis system. Future work will focus on developing a comprehensive field diagnosis system to clarify field environments, with the aim of addressing fragmentation and enclaves in Japanese farms.
Accurate and timely crop yield prediction and forecasting are important for improving agricultural productivity and supporting informed management decisions. In this study, we developed and evaluated a framework for estimating in-season potato yield at the field scale using Sentinel-2 satellite time series. A Grouped TreeSHAP Stability Selection (GTSS) was first applied to identify a compact, phenology-aware subset of spectral bands and vegetation indices, thereby reducing redundancy and mitigating overfitting in small-data settings. Two deep learning architectures tailored for limited training data were then introduced: LiteTemporalConv, a lightweight temporal convolutional network, and MS-ConvBiGRU-Attn, a hybrid encoder combining multi-scale convolutions, bidirectional GRUs, and an attention mechanism. Both models were benchmarked against widely used machine learning methods, including Random Forest, Support Vector Machine, Extreme Gradient Boost, Partial Least Squares, as well as standard deep learning baselines (CNN and GRU). Results showed that the proposed models outperformed both machine learning and conventional deep learning baselines, with LiteTemporalConv achieving the highest accuracy under 10-fold cross-validation (R² = 0.84; RMSE = 3.18 t ha⁻¹; rRMSE = 6.36%) and MS-ConvBiGRU-Attn yielding similarly strong performance (R² = 0.82; RMSE = 3.53 t ha⁻¹; rRMSE = 7.03%). By comparison, the best baseline, XGB, achieved an R² of 0.79 with an rRMSE of 9.8%. The two best-performing models were further evaluated on an independent spatial dataset to assess their generalization beyond the training region. In an additional experiment, both deep learning models trained on mid-season observations showed predictive stability for late-season yield estimation. Overall, the results highlight the importance of targeted feature selection and lightweight encoders for yield modeling in data-scarce conditions.
• DL model trained on MS data achieved the highest accuracy with an R 2 of 75.29% • Linear Regression Coefficient-Based feature selection with SVM and PCA with Linear Regression significantly improved model performance. • NIR and red-edge bands in the MS dataset consistently outperformed the RGB dataset • More represented rice variety (Sona) achieved a strong R 2 of 80.21% on MS data Accurate crop yield prediction is critical for agricultural planning, food security assessment, and farm-level decision-making. In Nepal, however, rice yield estimation is still predominantly based on traditional approaches, where local agricultural extension offices collect field-level observations that are subsequently aggregated at district, provincial, and national scales, often limiting spatial detail and timeliness. This study aims to develop a field-scale rice yield estimation framework by integrating Unmanned Aerial Vehicle (UAV)-derived remote sensing data with machine learning (ML) and deep learning (DL) techniques. High-resolution multispectral (MS) and RGB UAV imagery were used to evaluate the influence of Vegetation Indices (VIs), including HUE and VNDVI from RGB data and RGBVI and Simple Ratio (SR) from MS data, along with plant characteristics and farm management practices (e.g., application of Zyme and Zinc Potash) on rice yield. The predictive performance of Support Vector Machines (SVM), Linear Regression (LR), Decision Trees (DT), Random Forests (RF), and deep neural network models were systematically assessed. Data preprocessing included feature selection based on importance ranking, Yeo–Johnson power transformation, and Principal Component Analysis (PCA) to improve model stability and performance. Among conventional ML models, LR combined with PCA achieved a coefficient of determination (R²) of 69.09% using MS data, while SVM yielded the best performance using RGB data (R² = 68.27%). Overall, deep neural networks outperformed other models, achieving R² values of 75.29% and 64.60% for MS and RGB data, respectively. Model performance varied notably across rice varieties; the Sona variety (n = 127) achieved the highest coefficient of determination (R² = 80.21% for MS and 76.34% for RGB), whereas varieties with fewer samples exhibited lower predictive performance. Results further indicate that ranking features by importance, rather than eliminating them, enhances predictive accuracy, particularly when using LR-derived feature importance, which proved critical for improving the performance of both LR and SVM models.
Crop residues support soil health by reducing erosion, improving water retention, and contributing to carbon sequestration. Accurate estimation of crop residue biomass is essential for understanding residue distribution patterns and improving sustainable land management practices. Remote sensing, especially high-resolution UAV-based imaging, is a powerful tool for monitoring residue over agricultural fields, and many studies use remote sensing datasets for mapping residue cover (a 2D metric). However, few studies have evaluated residue biomass using remote sensing, despite biomass being more ecologically informative. This study uses high-resolution UAV multispectral imagery to predict crop residue biomass using feature selection and machine learning. Candidate predictors included raw bands, spectral indices, texture metrics, and digital-surface-model-derived topographic variables. Three feature selection methods—recursive feature elimination with cross-validation, Pearson correlation screening, and least absolute shrinkage and selection operator regression, were applied on the training set to identify informative predictors. Four machine learning models (Random Forest Regression, Support Vector Regression, CatBoost, and k-Nearest Neighbors [kNN]) were evaluated individually and in combination using simple averaging, weighted averaging, and stacked ensemble strategies. Results show that Pearson-selected features paired with kNN achieved the best performance (R 2 = 0.61, RMSE = 188.71 g m -2 ). Ensemble approaches did not outperform the best individual model, suggesting limited benefit from meta-learning under small-sample conditions. Across selection methods, red- and blue-band-related predictors were consistently retained, while textural and topographic variables were selected more selectively, indicating context-dependent contributions. Overall, simpler models with targeted feature selection can outperform more complex ensembles for UAV-based crop residue biomass estimation.
Purpose: This paper investigated automated physical quality assessment of harvested seeds. Design/Methodology/Approach: This study provides an extensive review of computer vision-based two-dimensional (2D) and three-dimensional (3D) deployments for the physical inspection of harvested seeds and grains. For this purpose, a total of 75 peer-reviewed articles published between 2022 and 2025 were identified from scientific databases, including Scopus, Web of Science, IEEE Xplore, and ScienceDirect. These articles were based on seed quality assessment, image processing, and artificial intelligence. The selected articles were systematically analysed according to different stages of the processing pipeline, including data acquisition, preprocessing, segmentation, feature extraction, and classification. Research Limitation: This review is restricted to physical quality assessment of harvested seeds, excluding chemical, biochemical, and nutritional parameters. It references 75 peer-reviewed articles published between 2022 and 2025. Findings: This study identified technical problems related to variations in seed samples, hardware setups, segmentation, feature selection, and classification. These problems significantly affect the performance of automated systems. Based on a critical examination of the present automated systems, this paper highlighted the scope for future research. Practical Implication: An advanced, future-ready system can address the need for integrated imaging methods and effective data processing. Social Implication: The adoption of automated seed inspection systems provides assurance of food security. Originality/ Value: This paper identified critical gaps such as the absence of a unified processing framework, the lack of cross-species generalisation, and the limited adoption of explainable AI.
Accurate monitoring of agronomic phenology is essential for yield estimation and food security assessment. However, currently available maize phenology datasets usually represent only a limited number of growth stages, restricting their application in process-based crop modeling and stage-specific agricultural management. Here, we present a high-resolution maize phenology dataset for Northeast China spanning 2001-2024 at 500-m spatial resolution and daily temporal resolution. By coupling MODIS spectral information with meteorological drivers in an energy-driven XGBoost framework, we retrieved eight key agronomic stages: Emergence, Three-leaf, Seven-leaf, Jointing, Flowering, Silking, Milking, and Maturity. Validation against observations from 91 agrometeorological stations during 2009-2024 demonstrates robust performance, with an overall RMSE of less than 5 days and R² values greater than 0.63 across all stages. Beyond overall accuracy, the dataset shows strong spatial consistency and temporal stability, preserves coherent regional phenological gradients, and captures interannual variations over the 24-year period. This long-term, multi-stage dataset provides a valuable benchmark for crop model calibration, climate change impact assessment, and the development of adaptive agricultural strategies in one of the world's major maize-producing regions.
Published30 Jul 2026The international archives of the photogrammetry, remote sensing and spatial information sciences/International archives of the photogrammetry, remote sensing and spatial information sciencesCited by 0 · OpenAlex ↗
Abstract. The harvest mouse, Micromys minutus (Pallas, 1771) is the smallest rodent in Japan and now listed in the Red Data Books of Tokyo, 2 prefectural capitals, and 28 prefectures in Japan due to drastic decline of grasslands. For the harvest mouse, the height and density of the tall grass species where nesting occurs are considered particularly important. However, it has been difficult to continuously and extensively acquire information on the three-dimensional structure of herbaceous vegetation. With recent development of UAV technology, UAV data are beginning to be applied to the analysis of herbaceous vegetation. For acquiring three-dimensional information via UAV, methods include using LiDAR sensors or generating 3D point cloud data from aerial photographs using SfM. This study evaluates whether UAV LiDAR or UAV SfM is more suitable for estimating the height of tall grass species such as Japanese silver grass (Miscanthus sinensis), which serve as important nesting sites for the harvest mouse. As a result of analysis, the proposed method was found to be effective to estimate grass height regardless of whether UAV LiDAR or UAV SfM is used. However, when comparing the accuracy of canopy height estimation using UAV LiDAR data alone, UAV SfM data alone, and combined UAV LiDAR and SfM data, combined UAV LiDAR and SfM data found to perform best. Maximum canopy height was found to be best estimated using the combination of median of hand-measured five maximum canopy height values and maximum height calculated using the combined UAV LiDAR and SfM data.
Abstract. Urban vegetation is essential for mitigating the Urban Heat Island effect, yet its cooling performance depends on its three-dimensional structure. This study combines high-resolution Unmanned Aerial Vehicle - based LiDAR (Zenmuse L2) and thermal imaging (Zenmuse H20) to analyze vegetation structure and surface temperature across 4 urban parks in San Nicolás de los Garza, Mexico. LiDAR data were processed to generate Digital Terrain Model, Digital Surface Model and Canopy Height Model models, enabling the segmentation of individual trees and extraction of structural metrics such as canopy height, crown area and point density. Thermal orthomosaics were co-registered with LiDAR models to quantify temperature contrasts between vegetated and impervious areas. Results reveal consistent cooling effects in all parks, with vegetated zones showing 8–15 °C lower surface temperatures depending on canopy density and maturity. Larger parks with continuous canopies displayed the strongest thermal regulation. This integrated LiDAR–thermal approach provides a precise and scalable framework for assessing microclimatic benefits of urban vegetation, supporting climate-resilient planning in rapidly urbanizing regions.
Accurate estimation of crop plant height using unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) is essential for field-scale crop monitoring and phenotyping. Most previous studies using UAV-based structure-from-motion (SfM) photogrammetry have relied on raster-based crop surface models (CSMs) and have evaluated their performance using accuracy metrics such as the coefficient of determination ( R 2 ) and root mean square error (RMSE). However, such evaluations provide limited insight into how estimation behavior varies across space and time, particularly during dynamic crop growth stages. To address this gap, this study conducted a time-series comparison of rice plant height estimates derived from UAV-SfM-generated dense point clouds (DPCs) and raster-based CSMs in farmer-managed paddy fields in Cambodia, which are characterized by heterogeneous micro-environmental conditions. Rice plant height was measured throughout the growing season and UAV-derived estimates were evaluated using regression analysis, analysis of covariance, and canopy cover dynamics. In the pooled analysis, both approaches achieved high overall accuracy, with R 2 = 0.92 and RMSE = 7.2 cm for the CSM-based approach and R 2 = 0.90 and RMSE = 8.8 cm for the DPC-based approach. However, time-series analyses revealed that CSM-derived plant height estimates exhibited strong location-dependent variability and sensitivity to early-stage canopy development, whereas DPC-based estimates showed more consistent performance across locations and growth stages. Regression coefficients derived from CSM-based estimates varied significantly among locations, whereas those from DPC-based estimates did not, suggesting that point-based representations may provide more spatially consistent estimation behavior under heterogeneous field conditions. By explicitly considering temporal dynamics, canopy development, and data representation, this study highlights the limitations of current raster-based UAV-SfM workflows for structurally complex crop canopies and suggests that DPC-based approaches may offer a useful complementary representation for crop monitoring and phenotyping, particularly when spatial consistency across heterogeneous field conditions is important.
Introduction Wheat leaf biomass is a key indicator of crop growth, nitrogen status, and yield potential, and its accurate estimation is essential for precision agriculture. Unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV) remote sensing provides multi-stage phenological observations for non-destructive biomass monitoring. However, existing approaches often fail to capture the superimposed temporal patterns inherent to crop phenology, including short-term physiological fluctuations driven by management events and long-term seasonal growth trends, as well as the cumulative causal effects of early-stage conditions on final biomass accumulation. Methods This study proposed a dual-branch perception and hybrid attention integrated framework (DBAFN) for temporal estimation of wheat leaf biomass from UAV multi-temporal observations across key growth stages. Results and discussion Experimental results demonstrated that the DBAFN achieved the best performance, with the coefficient of determination (R²) of 0.87, root mean square error (RMSE) of 38.41 g/m², mean absolute error (MAE) of 27.77 g/m², and relative RMSE (RRMSE) of 17.29%. Overall, the proposed framework provided an effective solution for temporal biomass estimation and demonstrated strong generalization capability, as further validated by independent experiments across different ecological regions and wheat genotypes (R² = 0.816-0.820). Compared with conventional machine learning models, the DBAFN showed consistently higher accuracy and lower prediction error. Multi-source feature analysis indicated that the combination of reflectance, vegetation indices, and canopy height provides the most accurate estimation. Ablation experiments further confirmed the effectiveness of each module in improving model performance. The SHapley Additive exPlanations (SHAP) analysis revealed that the canopy height and key spectral features contribute most to biomass prediction, highlighting the importance of integrating structural and physiological information. This study demonstrates that integrating multi-scale temporal dynamics, hybrid attention mechanisms, and transformer-based dependency modeling significantly improves the reliability of UAV-based biomass estimation. It offers a practical, data-driven pathway for intelligent crop monitoring and precision nitrogen management.
Turfgrass phenotyping relies heavily on visual quality (VQ) ratings and RGB indices like DGCI, but these are limited by observer subjectivity, coarse ordinal scales, or ratio formulations that do not reflect perceptual color differences. Hyperspectral and machine-learning tools overcome some limitations but remain costly and difficult to generalize, motivating the need for scalable and interpretable RGB color metrics. We introduce ΔEg, a perceptually anchored CIELAB ΔE distance from an ideal green that provides a continuous and interpretable measure of canopy color evaluated alongside a panel of RGB-derived metrics. A 3 × 3 nitrogen × irrigation greenhouse experiment using hybrid bermudagrass (TifTuf, Cynodon dactylon × C. transvaalensis) quantified canopy responses with RGB imaging, spectral reflectance, CCM-300 fluorescence, and chlorophyll assays. ΔEg correlated strongly with chlorophyll (r = 0.72), similar to DGCI (r = 0.73), and both exceeded CCM-300 (r = 0.29). HSVi showed the strongest association with VQ (r = 0.84) and was most sensitive to irrigation (ηp2 = 0.63). CIELUV v* explained the greatest model variation (R2m = 0.94) and responded most to fertilizer (ηp2 = 0.84). The yellow fraction was significant across all main and interaction effects and captured canopy decline (r = −0.82 with VQ). An illustrative decision-support scenario using ΔEg indicated that moderate fertilizer combined with mild deficit irrigation optimized turf color and input efficiency. Conclusions apply to controlled conditions, with field-scale validation identified as future work. These results demonstrate that interpretable RGB color metrics, anchored by ΔEg, offer a scalable alternative to VQ scoring and spectral systems.
Reproduction assets foundThe paper's Data Availability Statement deposits the phenotype data and the authors' Python image-processing/metric-computation scripts and R statistical analysis scripts in the USDA National Agricultural Library Ag Data Commons, a public repository. The full RGB imagery archive, however, is only available upon requestCode · public2025;23:673–687. doi: 10.1002/lom3.10705.
Associated Data
Data Availability Statement
Data and Python scripts used for image processing and %G, %Gr, %Y, ΔEg, DGCI, HSVi, BA SD , CIELUV v* metric computation, and R scripts used for statistical analysis are be available in the USDA National Agricultural Library Ag Data Commons ( https://agdatacommons.nal.usda.gov/ ), Data for—Proxima Green: RGB Color Metrics for Turfgrass Phenotyping in Controlled Conditions, accessed on 27 July 2026. The full RGB imagery archive will be made available upon reasonable request.Open asset ↗USDA National Agricultural Library Ag Data Commonslines:691-695Plant phenotyping relevance matchEurope PMC · checked 14 Sept 2026
Corn stunt is one of the most important diseases affecting maize (Zea mays L.) production in tropical regions of the Americas. The disease is caused by a complex of pathogens transmitted by the corn leafhopper (Dalbulus maidis), and its predominantly quantitative inheritance complicates the identification of tolerant genotypes under field conditions. In this context, we aimed to perform a comprehensive phenotypic stratification of corn stunt tolerance in a tropical public maize diversity panel and to identify contrasting inbred lines for breeding and genetic studies. A total of 360 inbred lines were evaluated under natural infection using three complementary disease-response traits: survivor plant health score (SPHS), proportion of survivor plants (PSP), and whole-plant health score (WPHS). Multi-trait mixed-model analyses revealed significant genotypic variation, moderate to high broad-sense heritability, and significant genotype × environment interactions for all evaluated traits. A multi-trait index (MSI), calculated from standardized best linear unbiased predictions (BLUPs), successfully integrated the three phenotypic components and enabled robust stratification of the diversity panel, identifying 60 highly tolerant and 60 highly susceptible inbred lines. Further, a genomic principal component analysis demonstrated that these phenotypic extremes were distributed across both tropical and subtropical germplasm, indicating that tolerance is not restricted to a single genetic background. The proposed phenotypic framework provides a robust and reproducible strategy for characterizing quantitative disease tolerance, identifying valuable parental germplasm, and establishing well-defined phenotypic extremes for future investigations of the genetic architecture of corn stunt tolerance.
Timely forecasting of maize productivity is essential to support precision agriculture and optimize management practices. In this study, we analyzed the potential of integrating ground-based measurements and UAV-derived spectral data for predicting maize grain yield (GY) under different fertilization conditions. Field data were collected at two key phenological stages: early vegetative stage (V7) and pre-harvest (R4). Ground-based measurements included SPAD, above-ground biomass (AGB), and leaf area index (LAI), while multispectral and hyperspectral imagery was acquired by drone. A series of Ordinary Least Squares (OLS) models was developed to evaluate the predictive performance of individual variables and their combinations. Model robustness was assessed using two validation strategies: Leave-One-Treatment-Out (LOTO) to assess model performance across the treatments included in the experimental design and random sampling to assess performance within the dataset. The results showed that yield prediction was less accurate during the early growth stages, where data fusion significantly improved the model’s accuracy (R2 = 0.82; MAE = 6.36 q ha−1; MAPE≈7 %). The predictive performance of VIs alone increased substantially in the pre-harvest stage, with the combination of red-edge indices and LAI proving to be the best model for late yield prediction (R2 = 0.86; MAE = 6.56 q ha−1; MAPE≈7%). Comparison of multispectral and hyperspectral data revealed comparable predictive performance, suggesting that multispectral sensors may already capture the key spectral information needed for yield forecasting. Furthermore, random validation consistently produced more optimistic results than the LOTO method, highlighting the importance of using validation strategies that explicitly account for the experimental design when evaluating model performance across the treatments included in the study. Overall, the present study demonstrates that yield prediction is highly dependent on the phenological stage and validation approach, and that integrating complementary data sources can improve model performance, particularly during the early growth stages. These findings should be interpreted as a proof-of-concept based on a single-site, single-season experiment with a limited sample size (n = 12), and therefore require further validation across multiple environments and growing seasons.
Background Covered smut in barley caused by Ustilago hordei leads to yield reduction and quality loss of stored grains and is especially challenging in organic production. However, screening for resistance remains challenging. The goal of our research was to evaluate protocols for screening covered smut in barley under normal and speed breeding conditions that could be scaled up for breeding purposes. We considered favorable pathogen growth conditions, a sufficient sample size to detect differences among genotypes through a power analysis, sources of disease escape or avoidance, and the infection effect on agronomic traits. Results In the first experiment, twenty genotypes treated with various inoculum concentrations were screened for disease incidence under a speed breeding system. Generally, low infection levels were found, likely due to disease escape or avoidance. Based on a power analysis, we modified the protocol to include more plants and improved pathogen growth conditions under a normal greenhouse system. With the modified protocol, the incidence of covered smut was significantly different among genotypes. The protocol also reduced the number of plants required to detect at least one infected plant. Artificial inoculation significantly decreased germination rates while head emergence, days to heading, and plant height were affected by disease infection in the most susceptible genotypes. We also found that covered smut incidence varied with tiller emergence order. The genotypes 'DH160779' (RES check), PI 270630', 'CIho15270', and 'MTV-color-158' presented potential resistance to covered smut. Conclusion The protocol has a high power to differentiate moderately resistant barley genotypes and we confirmed that specific agronomic traits were affected by disease incidence in susceptible genotypes.
Reproduction assets foundThe paper's disease-screening and agronomic-trait measurement data are publicly deposited on Zenodo, as stated in the Availability of data and materials section. No author analysis code or trained models are explicitly deposited.Dataset · publicThe data used and/or analyzed in the current study are available through the Zenodo, which is available at Gopinathan, G. (2025). Optimization of a protocol for covered smut in barley [Dataset]. Zenodo. [ 47 ] (https:/doi.org/ https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.17906264 ).Open asset ↗Zenodo · 10.5281/zenodo.17906264lines:190-223Plant phenotyping relevance matchCrossref · checked 5 Sept 2026
Alternanthera philoxeroides, an invasive alien species, spreads rapidly in river systems via vegetative propagation from stem fragments, requiring river-system-scale monitoring to understand its expansion dynamics and habitat preferences. This study used multi-temporal Sentinel-2 data to analyze spatio-temporal variations in fractional vegetation cover (FVC) within a 3.5 km river reach. FVC estimates derived from vegetation indices were validated against high-resolution aerial images, with an EVI-based model achieving the highest accuracy (RMSE = 9.2%), enabling reliable monitoring even in narrow (~24 m) channels. Time-series analysis from 2019 to 2024 revealed downstream expansion beginning in 2022. Annual maximum FVC (Cmax) was used to assess relationships with removal records and bank structures, showing that removal effects were temporary and more pronounced in the first year, while steel sheet-pile banks limited vegetation growth compared to concrete revetments. These results demonstrate that Sentinel-2 data can provide an effective and accessible tool for evaluating invasive plant dynamics and management effectiveness in low-flow river systems where A. philoxeroides dominates the floating vegetation community.
Endosperm cavities within maize kernels influence quality traits such as kernel plumpness and hardness, serving as a key phenotypic indicator for assessing maize yield and quality. Research on endosperm cavities remains relatively scarce due to the small size of maize kernels and limitations in technical approaches. This study employed X-ray micro-computed tomography (μCT) three-dimensional reconstruction technology to extract morphological parameters and spatial configurations of endosperm cavities in multiple maize varieties, enabling visualisation and quantification of endosperm cavities within maize kernels. Endosperm cavities exhibit spatial heterogeneity within the kernels: embryo-adjacent cavities (EACs) are distributed in a conical pattern around the embryo, whereas internal endosperm cavities (IECs) are located in the floury endosperm at the tip region of the kernel and exhibit a boat-shaped morphology. The volume ratio of EACs to IECs is approximately 5:1. A coordinate system was established with the kernel length axis perpendicular to the horizontal plane, revealing the spatial positions of IECs (x = 3.5 mm, y = 2.1 mm, z = 1.1 mm) and EACs (x = 2.5 mm, y = 2.3 mm, z = 7.1 mm). Significant differences in endosperm cavity characteristics were observed among the different varieties. The average volume of the endosperm cavities was 4.1 mm 3 , with kernel porosities ranging from 0.4% to 3.3%. These parameters exhibited highly significant positive correlations with kernel volume, kernel thickness, cavity surface density, etc. Although manual sectioning methods cannot capture the 3D features of endosperm cavities, their operational simplicity and rapid data extraction allow them to reflect, to some extent, the characteristics of endosperm cavities across different maize varieties, as confirmed by this study. This study elucidates the morphology and spatial distribution of endosperm cavities, revealing significant varietal differences in cavity characteristics that correlate with grain morphological traits. These findings lay the groundwork for research into maize grain digital characterisation and the relationship between grain structure and function.
Traditional crop phenotyping relies heavily on static, discrete, point-in-time measurements, a "static snapshot" approach that inherently overlooks the continuous, dynamic response patterns of living crops under fluctuating environmental conditions. This paper proposes "Crop Phenotypic Rheology", a novel interdisciplinary theoretical framework designed to systematically integrate physical rheological concepts—such as stress, strain, viscoelasticity, creep, and stress relaxation—into the spatio-temporal continuous analysis of dynamic crop phenotypes. Crop phenotypic rheology conceptualizes the crop phenotype as a complex non-linear system that continuously undergoes deformation, recovery, or phase transformation in response to time, environmental stress (e.g., drought, heat, nutrient deficit, and mechanical wind stress), and resource availability. We elucidate three fundamental rheological modes—elastic, plastic, and viscoelastic modes—and formulate the environmental stress-phenotypic strain dynamic equations governing continuous phenotypic responses. Furthermore, we explore multi-scale integration mechanisms bridging micro-scale cellular rheology, meso-scale plant posture rheology, and macro-scale canopy rheology. By overcoming the fundamental limitations of static phenotyping, crop phenotypic rheology transitions crop phenotypic research from static structural measurements to a dynamic science focused on deciphering continuous response mechanisms, providing a transformative paradigm and theoretical support for precision breeding, abiotic stress screening, and smart agronomic management.
Abstract Architectural analysis provides a powerful analytical framework for understanding the ontogenetic trajectories of tree species and their adaptive responses to environmental constraints. Despite their ecological, economic, and cultural importance in West African agroforestry systems, the architectural development of Khaya senegalensis (Desr.) A. Juss. (Meliaceae) and Pterocarpus erinaceus Poir. (Fabaceae), two overexploited taxa classified as Vulnerable on the IUCN Red List, had never been formally described. This study presents the first complete characterization of their architectural development, from the seedling stage to senescence, based on architectural and retrospective analyses conducted on 360 individuals per species across seven localities along a south-north bioclimatic gradient in Côte d'Ivoire, covering contrasting vegetation zones ranging from dense humid forest to dry Sudanian savanna. Both species display well-defined ontogenetic trajectories comprising four phases: juvenile establishment, architectural construction, reproductive transition, and crown restructuring associated with ageing. Distinct architectural models were identified: K. senegalensis conforms to Rauh's model, characterized by a monopodial orthotropic trunk with indefinite growth and rhythmic acrotonic branching; P. erinaceus follows Troll's model, in which the orthotropic trunk progressively gives rise to a sympodial plagiotropic system with mixed terminal and lateral flowering. Architectural units, defined as the minimal structural organization enabling a species to reach reproductive maturity, were established at the adult stage: that of K. senegalensis comprises four axis categories and five branching orders, while that of P. erinaceus comprises three axis categories and up to six branching orders in old trees. Significant variation in growth-unit morphology among habitats and localities ( P ) revealed the architectural plasticity of both species in response to ecological gradients. The calculated Favourable Development indices ( FDi ) identified Bouaké and Katiola as optimal zones for K. senegalensis , and Bouaké and Toumodi for P. erinaceus , providing objective spatial criteria for reforestation planning. These findings demonstrate that architectural traits are robust indicators of development, adaptive strategies, and crown functioning. By linking structural organization to productivity, resilience, and regeneration potential, this study provides a scientific basis for integrating architectural analysis into reforestation programmes, sustainable forest management, and the design of agroforestry systems for threatened African tree species facing growing climatic and anthropogenic pressures. Complementary regression analyses further showed that phytomer number, rather than internode elongation, primarily governs growth-unit length in both species, and that growth unit diameter scales positively with growth unit length; a multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA) confirmed that ontogenetic stage and locality, but not habitat alone, robustly structure growth-unit morphology.
Plant disease phenotyping underpins resistance breeding, epidemiology and crop-loss management, yet it remains a recognised bottleneck. This review asked whether the two metrics that dominate the discipline, the disease severity index (DSI) and the area under the disease progress curve (AUDPC), adequately represent disease as a temporally unfolding process, and what the evidence says about dynamic alternatives. Reporting followed PRISMA 2020 and the Synthesis Without Meta-analysis (SWiM) guideline. Web of Science Core Collection, Scopus, PubMed and a Google Scholar grey-literature sweep were searched for records published between January 2020 and December 2025, retrieving 1,192 records; 874 remained after de-duplication, 128 full texts were assessed and 31 studies met the eligibility criteria. Citation chasing added 24 foundational works, giving 55 included studies. Records were dual-screened (Cohen's kappa = 0.86), appraised with an adapted Mixed Methods Appraisal Tool, and synthesised using vote counting by direction of effect, an evidence map and structured cross-study comparison; meta-analysis was inappropriate because outcomes were not commensurable. Thirty studies (54.5%) represented disease at a single assessment and eight (14.5%) collapsed the epidemic into one integrated area, whereas only twelve (21.8%) retained the full trajectory. Across six outcome domains, all 29 study-level comparisons favoured the temporally richer method and none reported a null or negative result, an asymmetry indicating probable reporting bias. Certainty was high for visual-assessment findings, moderate for sensing and dynamic modelling, and low for field-realised genetic gain. The phenotyping bottleneck has migrated from data acquisition to data representation.
Premise Accurate species identification is crucial for ecological restoration and can be especially challenging for understudied non-model species. Quercus garryana is the only native oak species in the Pacific Northwest and is an important component of the endangered oak savanna ecosystem. Quercus robur is an imported ornamental species from Europe and has been found to be mistakenly planted as Q. garryana in habitat restoration projects. Methods We measured leaf morphological traits sampled from herbarium collections in their native ranges using the digital morphometric tools MorphoLeaf and Tomato Analyzer. We then used Lasso logistic analysis to generate a predictive model and tested it on leaves from Portland, Oregon. To streamline this species detection process, we developed Garryanalyzer, an ImageJ plug-in that automatically measures leaf traits and outputs species predictions. Results Garryanalyzer demonstrated 95% accuracy in predicting the species identity of herbarium specimens of oaks. Garryanalyzer correctly identified all Q. robur individuals sampled in Portland but showed lower accuracy for Q. garryana . Discussion Many existing morphometric software are not open source, which makes them unable to be customized to specific study systems. Garryanalyzer is built upon the widely used open-source ImageJ platform. This study also demonstrates a viable workflow for developing similar tools for other ecologically important non-model plant species.
Reproduction assets foundThe paper's authors publicly released the Garryanalyzer ImageJ plug-in source code on GitHub, all original and modified leaf images used in the morphometric analyses on Zenodo, and the full leaf morphometric measurement dataset plus R Lasso analysis code in a second Zenodo repository. All are paper-specific, public,可直接Code · publicThe source code and installation instructions for Garryanalyzer can be accessed on GitHub at https://github.com/zxie8561/Garryanalyzer.Open asset ↗https://github.com/zxie8561/Garryanalyzer · zxie8561/Garryanalyzerhtml-lines:210-274Dataset · publicAll images used in the morphometric analyses, both original and modified, are available on Zenodo (https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.17462266).Open asset ↗https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.17462266 · 10.5281/zenodo.17462266html-lines:210-274Dataset · publicThe full dataset of leaf morphometric measurements of both GBIF and Portland samples, R code for Lasso analysis, and other miscellaneous files are available on a separate Zenodo repository (https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.17546152).Open asset ↗https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.17546152 · 10.5281/zenodo.17546152html-lines:210-274Plant phenotyping relevance matchOpenAlex · Crossref · checked 6 Sept 2026
Perilla ( Perilla frutescens ) is an important oilseed crop in East Asia with high nutritional and economic value. Seed size and seed coat color are key agronomic traits influencing yield, oil quality, and market preference. However, genetic studies in perilla remain limited by small population sizes and low-throughput phenotyping, restricting their application in breeding. A large-scale genome-wide association study (GWAS) was conducted by integrating high-throughput image-based phenotyping in a panel of 493 perilla accessions. Measurements of seed morphology, including area, perimeter, and length, and color traits (RGB components) were obtained. Genotyping-by-sequencing generated high-quality single-nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) datasets, and GWAS was performed using four statistical models (general linear model, mixed linear model, FarmCPU, and BLINK). A total of 44 significant trait-SNP associations were identified, corresponding to 20 unique SNPs, as several SNPs (including those on chromosomes 6, 10, 15, and 17) were associated with multiple correlated traits. Linkage disequilibrium-based analysis showed candidate genes involved in phenylpropanoid metabolism and carbohydrate pathways. Predicted protein-altering variants, including non-synonymous and stop-gained mutations, were detected in key genes. Derived cleaved amplified polymorphic sequence markers developed near peak SNPs distinguished phenotypic differences between allelic groups, demonstrating their effectiveness for trait differentiation. This study represents the first large-scale GWAS integrating image-based phenotyping for seed traits in perilla and provides candidate dCAPS markers with potential applicability to marker-assisted selection, pending validation in independent breeding populations. These findings offer valuable genetic resources and a practical framework for molecular breeding and crop improvement in perilla.
1. Morphological traits such as floral area and body size are fundamental to ecological research, serving as inputs for studies of pollinator–plant interactions, habitat quality, and biodiversity monitoring. However, accurately measuring these traits from images remains challenging, particularly in complex field conditions where existing tools exhibit reduced accuracy and limited generalizability across taxa. 2. We present EcoMorph, a modular morphological measurement system that leverages the Segment Anything Model 3 (SAM3) to quantify traits across diverse ecological contexts. Unlike task-specific segmentation models requiring domain-specific training data, SAM3's prompt-based architecture enables segmentation of arbitrary biological structures from natural-language prompts, using the same underlying model across flowers, insects, and other targets without retraining. From the resulting segmentations, EcoMorph extracts three classes of measurement: area, linear dimensions, and object count. 3. We validated EcoMorph across two ecological scales. At the intermediate scale, EcoMorph-derived floral area agreed closely with manual ImageJ measurements (R² = 0.935, n = 74) under simple-background conditions and (R² = 0.928, n = 58) under complex-background conditions, with valid predictions for 95% of images. At the fine scale, EcoMorph-derived insect body area was strongly correlated with hand-measured intertegular distance (r = 0.810, n = 349), capturing body-size variation across species from the small Bombus impatiens to the large Xylocopa virginica. Object counts matched manual counts almost exactly for well-separated insects in an insect box (R² = 1.000, n = 12). 4. By combining prompt-based segmentation with modular measurement, EcoMorph enables high-throughput quantification of area, size, and count from heterogeneous image sources without taxon-specific training. This generality supports a broad range of ecological applications, including pollinator and plant trait research, biodiversity and abundance monitoring, and allometric biomass estimation.
Drought and water deficit have severely restricted melon ( Cucumis melo L.) production in Xinjiang, and large-scale systematic evaluations of drought tolerance at the germination stage are still extremely limited. Physiological and biochemical indicators related to the germination stage, including osmotic adjustment substances and antioxidant enzyme activities, have not yet been incorporated into prediction models for the rapid identification of germplasm drought resistance. To address these research gaps, this study selected 60 accessions of local melon germplasm resources in Xinjiang and used polyethylene glycol (PEG) solutions at four different concentrations (0%, 10%, 20% and 30%) to simulate drought stress conditions. Drought tolerance was evaluated to develop a method for the rapid screening of drought-tolerant germplasms. The findings demonstrated that PEG stress significantly suppressed seed germination and had both stimulatory and inhibitory effects on radicle growth. With the increase in PEG concentration, germination indices consistently exhibited a downward trend. Under 10% PEG treatment, the variation among different germplasms was relatively small, while 30% PEG completely inhibited seed germination. Notably, 20% PEG fell within the semi-lethal concentration range for all tested germplasms and yielded the maximum coefficient of variation for germination rate, which could maximally differentiate the drought resistance differences among germplasms. Therefore, 20% PEG was determined to be the optimal screening concentration. Under 20% polyethylene glycol (PEG) stress, the degree of membrane lipid peroxidation (malondialdehyde, MDA), contents of osmotic regulators (proline, Pro; soluble protein, SP), and activities of antioxidant enzymes (superoxide dismutase, SOD; peroxidase, POD; catalase, CAT; ascorbate peroxidase, APX) in the radicles of melon germplasms were universally elevated. However, the variation ranges and trends of biochemical indices among different germplasms exhibited significant differences. The proline content of melon accessions with strong drought resistance increased, the malondialdehyde (a product of membrane damage) was low, and the enzyme activities increased significantly. The proline content of non-drought-tolerant melon accessions increased less, malondialdehyde accumulated in large amounts, and the activity of some protective enzymes decreased. Correlation analysis demonstrated that Pro exerted a synergistic effect in conjunction with antioxidant enzymes (SOD, CAT) to mitigate drought stress. Cluster analysis classified the germplasm into 14 high-tolerance types, 10 medium-tolerance types, and 9 low-tolerance types. Based on extreme germination phenotypes, 27 germplasms were identified as drought-sensitive types. A prediction model for drought tolerance was established via stepwise regression: D = -0.309 + 0.053 × Pro (proline content) + 0.319 × RL (radicle length) + 0.469 × MDA (malondialdehyde) + 0.137 × SOD (superoxide dismutase), with four core indicators (RL, MDA, Pro, SOD) identified. These findings provide a scientific basis and technical support for drought tolerance breeding, parental selection, and large-scale, precise, and rapid drought tolerance screening of melon germplasms in the arid regions of Xinjiang.
Published23 Jul 2026The international archives of the photogrammetry, remote sensing and spatial information sciences/International archives of the photogrammetry, remote sensing and spatial information sciencesCited by 0 · OpenAlex ↗
Abstract. Accurate estimation of tree volume is essential for precision forestry and sustainable forest management. Traditional forest inventory methods rely on manual measurements of tree height and diameter, which are time-consuming and costly to conduct over large areas, and difficult to perform efficiently in dense forest stands. This study presents a data-driven approach for estimating tree volume from partial tree stem profiles derived from high-resolution datasets. While the study relies on harvester production data (Sweden) and field-measured tree stem profiles (Brazil), the framework is designed to support the estimation of tree volume from close-range remote sensing techniques, such as terrestrial photogrammetry using handheld cameras. Three modelling approaches were evaluated, including two machine learning models (XGBoost and Random Forest) using partial tree stem profile measurements as predictors, and one baseline model (XGBoost) using diameter at breast height and tree height as predictors. The models were developed using two independent datasets: harvester production data of Norway spruce (Picea abies (L.) H. Karst.) from Sweden and field-measured tree stem profiles of Slash pine (Pinus elliottii Engelm.) and Loblolly pine (Pinus taeda L.) plantations from Brazil. The results show that tree volume can be predicted with reasonable accuracy using partial tree stem profiles, although models incorporating tree height achieved the lowest prediction errors. The findings demonstrate that partial tree stem profiles provide valuable structural information for machine learning-based tree volume estimation. This framework supports the future integration of close-range remote sensing techniques into modern forest inventory systems.
Abstract Plants live in a physical world governed by a multitude of mechanical processes which vary over time. The unique features of plant cells, which are turgor-inflated objects surrounded by the cell wall, present an intricate perception and response system for mechanical forces. A powerful tool to investigate how plants adapt and react to these cues is Atomic Force Microscopy (AFM), which can provide information about surface morphology as well as mechanical properties. In the context of cell wall biomechanics, there remains some controversy on appropriate AFM measurement practices and suitable use of common terminologies. Specifically, the interpretation of plant cell indentation curves and derivation of the wall elasticity modulus can be challenging and continues to spark debate. In this Expert View, we discuss recent advances of AFM in plant science as well as best practices for the use of AFM and considerations for data interpretation with a focus on mechanical probing by indentation.
Introduction Accurate and non-destructive estimation of wheat biomass is essential for crop growth monitoring, yield prediction, and precision agriculture. Unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV)-based remote sensing, integrating both spectral and structural information, has shown great potential for biomass estimation. However, the mechanisms by which different types of variables contribute to biomass prediction remain poorly understood, especially when using machine learning models. Methods In this study, we fused spectral reflectance, vegetation indices, and canopy height data derived from a UAV multispectral camera to estimate wheat biomass across four growth stages (jointing, booting, heading, and filling). Four machine learning algorithms-XGBoost, Random Forest Regressor (RFR), Support Vector Regressor (SVR), and LASSO-were employed and compared. Results and discussion The results showed that XGBoost achieved the highest accuracy (R 2 = 0.919, RMSE = 102.43 g/m², MAE = 77.43 g/m², RRMSE = 19.71%). Furthermore, SHAP (SHapley Additive exPlanations) analysis revealed that canopy height (CH) was the most important variable, followed by spectral indices such as R842 and GNDVI. The univariate and global contribution analyses demonstrated that structural and spectral variables played complementary roles in biomass estimation. This study provides a mechanistic understanding of variable contributions and offers a robust framework for UAV-based wheat biomass estimation.
Remote sensing has become an important tool for crop monitoring and precision agriculture, yet its applications in sugar beet production remain fragmented across sensing platforms, target traits and modelling strategies. This review synthesises the development, current applications and future directions of remote sensing in sugar beet production, with particular attention to the transition from crop monitoring to precision management. A structured search was conducted in Scopus and the Web of Science Core Collection for publications from 2003 to 2025, and 181 relevant peer-reviewed articles were retained for thematic analysis. The literature shows a clear increase in sugar beet remote sensing studies, particularly after 2015, coinciding with the availability of Sentinel-2 imagery and, from 2016 onwards, the growing use of unmanned aerial vehicle-based sensing. It also indicates a gradual shift from crop mapping and canopy monitoring towards disease detection, weed mapping, yield prediction and management-oriented applications. Current studies demonstrate the value of satellite, unmanned aerial vehicle and proximal sensing for retrieving canopy traits, assessing biotic stresses, estimating root yield and supporting field-scale management. However, sugar beet presents specific challenges because its economic value depends not only on canopy development or root biomass, but also on sucrose concentration, recoverable sugar yield, and processing quality. These quality-related traits remain less studied and are difficult to infer directly from canopy observations. Modelling approaches have evolved from vegetation-index-based empirical models towards machine learning, deep learning, multi-temporal analysis, data fusion and crop model assimilation, but issues of model transferability, ground-truth availability and operational decision support remain unresolved. Future research should strengthen multi-source observations, external validation, quality-oriented prediction and decision-support workflows to promote robust, scalable and economically meaningful remote sensing applications in sugar beet production.
This study compiles and releases the first standardized rapeseed phenology observation dataset spanning forty-four years (1981-2024) over the core winter rapeseed production region of the Middle and Lower Yangtze River Plain in China. The data originate from systematic observations at 50 national-level agrometeorological stations across six provinces: Jiangsu, Zhejiang, Anhui, Jiangxi, Hubei, and Hunan. The dataset provides complete records of the specific dates for each phenology stage from sowing to maturity, including eight key phenology periods: Sowing (SO), Emergence (EM), Five-leaf (FV), Bud Formation (BF), Stem Elongation (SE), Flowering (FL), Green Ripening (GR), and Maturity (MA), along with the calculated durations of six distinct growth lengths. We implemented a multi-level quality control protocol encompassing internal logical checks, statistical outlier detection, climatological validation, time series homogenization, and expert arbitration. This protocol effectively constrained data uncertainty and corrected non-climatic discontinuities. Univariate linear regression was further employed to quantify the decadal change trends of each phenology period and growth length, supplemented by Kernel Density Estimation (KDE) to characterize their probability distribution features. The final dataset is presented as structured tables (in xlsx format) and high-resolution diagnostic plots (including trend and density plots), with a total volume of approximately 470 MB, systematically organized by province and station. This dataset fills a critical gap in long-term, standardized rapeseed phenology data for the region. The integrated analysis of phenology dates, growth stage durations, and their trends across the entire network provides an indispensable, high-quality empirical foundation. It is designed to support in-depth investigations into the nonlinear response mechanisms of overwintering crops to climate warming, improve crop model parameterization and validation, and inform regional adaptive management strategies.
Reproduction assets foundThe paper's rapeseed phenology dataset (1981–2024, 50 stations) is openly deposited in Science Data Bank under DOI 10.57760/sciencedb.34086, containing structured xlsx tables and diagnostic plots. No custom code was created per the authors.Dataset · publicThe dataset described in this work has been deposited in the Science Data Bank (ScienceDB) under
accession code https://doi.org/10.57760/sciencedb.34086 [27].Open asset ↗Science Data Bank · 10.57760/sciencedb.34086pdf-page:12 lines:1-68Plant phenotyping relevance matchEurope PMC · checked 14 Sept 2026
PotatoField / plotGrowth / time-series analysisGrowth / development / phenologyWater status / transpiration
Real-time measurement of belowground tuber growth has not been conducted in field crops. Here, a strain-gauge sensor was used to monitor potato tuber growth and estimate mean daily tuber water loss. Over the 13 days preceding harvest, tuber thickness increased by 0.90 mm, corresponding to a daily gain of 1.33 g, or a 4.8% increase. The greatest diurnal fluctuation was 0.453 mm, corresponding to a transpirational water loss of 9.4 ml, or 3% of the tuber’s water content. Daily transpiration showed a positive correlation with air temperature and vapor pressure deficit. This sensor will enable more precise input control and higher temporal resolution than current methods for below-ground crops, supporting improved crop management, yield prediction, and harvest decisions.
Plant hormones play critical roles in many aspects of plant life cycles including development, growth, reproduction and responses to environmental stimuli. These processes are often associated with changes in endogenous plant hormone levels and locations. Therefore, to understand the modes of action of plant hormones, it is important to accurately quantify these chemical compounds in a high-definition tissue map. In this study, we developed a system to quantify indole-3-acetic acid (IAA), the major endogenous auxin, from small tissue samples using laser microdissection (LMD) coupled with nano-flow liquid chromatography (nano-LC)-mass spectrometry (MS), which improved detection limits, allowing quantification of IAA from a single 10 μm cryosection of maize coleoptile. Our results reveal that IAA is actively synthesized in the apical 400 μm region of the coleoptiles and is preferentially accumulated in vascular tissues. This technique can provide a precise view of the spatiotemporal distribution of plant hormones and their significance in regulating physiological responses at tissue or cellular levels.
Selecting ideal drought-tolerant wheat varieties requires a holistic synthesis of digital phenotypes, molecular markers, and agronomic indices. This study evaluated 16 wheat genotypes for drought tolerance by integrating digital phenotyping (UAV-based thermal imaging), molecular data (DREB gene expression profiles), and 12 agronomic indices. While vegetative DREB accumulation remained mostly homogeneous, the generative stage triggered pronounced transcriptional shifts, and late-stage thermal screening revealed highly significant genotypic differences during grain filling. A multivariate PCA biplot identified early canopy temperature differences during tillering (ΔCT_TL) as the most informative non-destructive selection indicator. ΔCT_TL showed a strong positive association with terminal yield stability metrics (YSI and RSI) and a marked negative relationship with the drought sensitivity index (SDI). This early canopy temperature regulation contributed to the maintenance of yield stability in the modern hexaploid variety MFTBY-T and advanced tetraploid lines OR2-T and OR4-S. In contrast, poorly adapted ancient varieties (P5-S and S3-S) exhibited high drought sensitivity accompanied by pronounced late-stage induction of DREB1 and DREB2, suggesting a delayed stress-response mechanism activated under severe tissue dehydration. Conversely, the modern tetraploid variety KZLTN-T and hexaploid landraces appeared to rely on an early vegetative molecular priming strategy. These findings suggest that breeding programs should prioritize the incorporation of vegetative transcriptional traits associated with effective canopy temperature homeostasis into elite genetic backgrounds.
Traditional manual measurement of garlic bulb phenotypic traits is inefficient, subjective, poorly reproducible, and may cause sample damage. To improve the adaptability of three-dimensional reconstruction to garlic bulb morphology and grading-related parameter extraction, this study developed a non-destructive phenotypic measurement workflow based on multi-view image-based three-dimensional reconstruction. Four garlic materials with distinct bulb morphologies and epidermal characteristics were used to demonstrate the feasibility of the reconstruction workflow, and 40 Lanling white-skinned garlic bulbs were used for quantitative accuracy validation. Multi-view images were acquired using a high-resolution camera, a motorized turntable, and a controlled illumination system. Three-dimensional models were reconstructed using ContextCapture, and the resulting point clouds were processed in CloudCompare through cropping, denoising, downsampling, and pose correction. Maximum longitudinal diameter, maximum transverse diameter, and volume were extracted from the processed point clouds according to GB/T 45244-2025 (Grades and Specifications of Garlic) and validated against manual reference measurements. The coefficients of determination for maximum longitudinal diameter, maximum transverse diameter, and volume were 0.9935, 0.9909, and 0.9924, respectively, with RMSE values of 0.0529 cm, 0.0520 cm, and 0.8874 cm3, and MAPE values of 0.6647%, 0.7765%, and 1.9149%. Additional MAE, bias, confidence interval, and Bland–Altman analyses further supported the agreement between model-derived and manual reference measurements. These results demonstrate the feasibility of multi-view image-based three-dimensional reconstruction for non-destructive garlic bulb phenotypic measurement and provide a methodological basis for future grading-related assessment and three-dimensional phenotyping of bulbous horticultural crops.
Traditional methods for detecting the soluble solid content (SSC) of kumquats are often destructive, time-consuming, and inefficient. In this study, a multi-scale convolutional neural network (MS-CNN)-based method is proposed for the rapid and non-destructive prediction of kumquat SSC. By integrating near-infrared spectroscopy (900–1700 nm) with deep learning, 424 spectral samples of kumquats were collected and modeled using the MS-CNN framework. The proposed model adopts a multi-scale feature extraction structure inspired by the Inception architecture, which effectively enhances the representation of spectral features and reduces overfitting. Experimental results showed that the MS-CNN achieved an Rp2 of 0.88, an RMSEP of 0.62 °Brix, and an MAEP of 0.51 °Brix on the internal prediction set. Among the evaluated models, the MS-CNN achieved the highest Rp2, while its RMSEP was comparable to that of PLSR and lower than those of SVR, BP, CNN, and BiLSTM. The proposed approach enables fast, accurate, and non-destructive prediction of kumquat SSC, providing a novel technical solution for fruit quality assessment. This work holds significant theoretical and practical value, and future efforts will focus on expanding the dataset, optimizing the network structure, exploring multi-index joint prediction, and promoting its real-world application.
Grapevine yellows diseases, including Flavescence Dorée (FD) and Bois Noir (BN), severely affect vineyards, making reliable detection methods essential. Detecting symptoms, particularly in Chardonnay variety, remains challenging due to year-to-year vine variability and the presence of symptoms that can be misleading. We present a dataset of multispectral images of grapevine leaves collected over four years (2021–2024). The dataset includes healthy leaves, grapevine yellows - overwhelmingly BN, and three other diseases (Esca, Discoloration, and Leafroll) with visually similar symptoms particularly for Leafroll, providing a diverse benchmark for disease recognition. Ground-truth labels were assigned based on field inspections conducted by Comité Champagne expert viticulturists who selected the vines before acquisitions and analyzed the images after acquisition. Images were acquired under laboratory conditions using a DJI Phantom 4 Multispectral camera from leaves collected in the Plumecoq Comité Champagne experimental vineyards. Leaves were collected on designated vines and placed on polystyrene boards on a 2x2 grid. One RGB image and five multispectral images corresponding to the Blue (B - 450 nm ± 16 nm), Green (G - 560 nm ± 16 nm), Red (R - 650 nm ± 16 nm), Red-Edge (RE - 730 nm ± 16 nm), and Near-Infrared (NIR - 840 nm ± 26 nm) bands were captured using the same acquisition system (camera-to-board distance of approximately 90 cm) over the four years.. For the vast majority, ambient light was used; for some acquisitions, indirect halogen spotlights were used. The 512x512 leaf images were manually cropped from the acquired original images with the same offsets between the bands; offsets were already present due to the parallax phenomenon. The dataset is organized into six folders (B, G, R, RE, NIR, and RGB). Each leaf is represented by one RGB image and five corresponding multispectral band images, enabling multimodal analysis and machine learning for grapevine disease detection. Each image filename encodes acquisition and annotation information as follows: Characters 1–2: acquisition year (21 = 2021, 22 = 2022, 23 = 2023, 24 = 2024). Character 3: image type/band (0 = RGB, 1 = B, 2 = G, 3 = R, 4 = RE, 5 = NIR). Character 4: class (J = Grapevine Yellows, T = Healthy, S = Esca, E = Leafroll, D = Discoloration). Character 5: illumination condition (0 = ambient light, G = additional left halogen spotlight, D = additional right halogen spotlight, 2 = additional both left and right halogen spotlightsl). Characters 6–9: image identifier, numbered sequentially from 0000. Character 10: relabelling status. After image acquisition, all leaves were independently reviewed by expert viticulturists on the recorded RGB images. A value of 1 indicates that the expert confirmed the original field label, 0 indicates that the original label was considered incorrect based on the information visible in the RGB image, and D indicates that the sample was reclassified as Discoloration. This dataset complements the "Multi-annual spectral data of Chardonnay grapevine leaves" dataset published on Recherche Data Gouv. While the previous dataset contains spectral measurements, the present dataset provides multispectral images acquired from the same grapevine leaves, enabling multimodal analyses that combine spectral signatures with image-based information. Note, however, that there is no bijection between the respective files.
Yellow rust (YR) is a major threat to both bread and durum wheat production, often causing substantial yield losses. Conventional visual scoring of YR severity, while widely adopted, is labor-intensive, time-consuming, and prone to human error. In this study, we evaluated the predictability (PA), defined as the correlation between predicted and observed values, using genomic and phenomic data for YR severity under multiple prediction scenarios in two biparental wheat populations (bread and durum). YR scoring was conducted on two dates, with YR severity visually assessed while unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV)-based high-throughput phenotyping (HTP) data were collected using a multispectral camera. HTP data were processed to extract spectral wavelengths and vegetation indices (VIs), and all lines were also genotyped using SNP arrays. We tested a diverse set of models, including parametric, machine learning, and deep learning approaches. PA increased markedly when HTP-derived data were used compared with genomic markers alone. For example, support vector regression (SVR) improved from 0.35 (markers only) to 0.87 (wavelengths only). However, integrating genomic and phenomic data did not yield further improvements, as models often plateaued when using HTP-derived features alone. Cross-crop prediction demonstrated promising generalization across bread and durum wheat, achieving PA values up to 0.83. For this last task, best linear unbiased prediction (BLUP) and multilayer perception (MLP) consistently provided robust performance across scenarios. These findings highlight the strong potential of UAV-based HTP for rapid, scalable, and accurate prediction of YR severity in wheat. While genomics retains broad utility for breeding, the practical integration of phenomics and AI-driven prediction pipelines will ultimately depend on breeding program strategies, resources, and objectives.
Reproduction assets foundThe article's Data Availability statement deposits the datasets generated and analyzed in this study (yellow rust phenotyping with UAV spectral data and genomic markers in bread and durum wheat) in the CIMMYT repository under DOI 10.71682/10549375, which is an allowed URL. No author analysis code or trained model is avDataset · publicand scalable strategy for YR assessment in wheat breeding.
Funding
The authors gratefully acknowledge financial support from the Government of Mexico through
the “MasAgro – Cultivos para México” initiative.
Data Availability
The datasets generated and/or analyzed during the current study are available in the CIMMYT
repository: https://doi.org/10.71682/10549375.Acknowledgements
We are deeply grateful to Julio Huerta-Espino for his guidance and support throughout all stages
of this manuscript. We also thank Hedilberto Velásquez Miranda for his valuable assistance with
rust visual score phenotyping, and Neftalí Cruz Pérez for his dedicated support in trial sowing and
field management.
Conflict Open asset ↗10.71682/10549375pdf-raw-page:30 lines:1-37Plant phenotyping relevance matchOpenAlex · checked 14 Sept 2026
Published17 Jul 2026Zenodo (CERN European Organization for Nuclear Research)Cited by 0 · OpenAlex ↗
Dr. Abdul Qayyum · Muhammad Haris Malik · Muhammad Aqib Malik · Dr. Sami Ullah Khan · Zahid Mahmood · Bilal Khan
WheatGrowth chamberRootMorphology / geometry measurementRoot system architectureStress response / toleranceWater status / transpiration
Description: Background: Water scarcity severely threatens wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) production in arid and semi-arid regions like Pakistan, requiring the development of climate-resilient crop varieties. Root System Architecture (RSA) is critical for drought tolerance, yet evaluating these "hidden half" traits has traditionally been limited by destructive, time-consuming field methods. Objective: This study comparatively evaluates the RSA and drought adaptability of four prominent wheat cultivars—Akbar-19, Fakhar-e-Bhakkar-19, Dilkash-19, and CN3—under varying water stress conditions. Methodology: The experiment was conducted in a controlled rhizobox setup at the speed breeding facility of CSI-NARC, Islamabad. Four cultivars were exposed to three irrigation levels ($100\%$, $75\%$, and $50\%$ field capacity). Digital root phenotyping was performed using the open-source software Rhizo Vision Explorer to evaluate 2D scanned images for traits including total root length, root diameter, volume, surface area, and branching frequency. Key Findings: The analysis revealed distinct genotypic strategies for drought adaptation. CN-3 (G2) emerged as highly promising for water-limited environments, demonstrating the highest relative water content (RWC) stability ($71.27\%$), thickest root profiles ($7.95\text{ mm}$), and largest root volume ($1,773.2\text{ mm}^3$). Dilkash-19 (G3) showed strong structural stability with a consistent root length ($160.33\text{ mm}$), while Fakhar-E-Bhakkar-19 (G4) excelled in root surface area ($2,145.8\text{ mm}^2$) and root tip density ($958.99\text{ tips}$), signaling high potential for nutrient foraging. Conversely, Akbar-19 (G1) displayed lower adaptability due to lower RWC and limited root volume. Significance: This research bridges the gap between digital phenotyping platforms and traditional breeding practices. It identifies vital genetic donors like CN3 and Dilkash-19 for breeding programs targeting drought tolerance, offering practical pathways to sustain wheat productivity and strengthen food security under changing climatic conditions.
Abstract Purpose of Review Ground-based 3D point cloud technologies, including static terrestrial laser scanning (TLS), mobile laser scanning (MLS), and close-range photogrammetry, are increasingly used for estimation of aboveground vegetation biomass as they provide detailed structural representations across vegetation types; however, a comprehensive synthesis of how point-cloud data are translated into biomass estimates remains lacking. This review evaluates current approaches, performance patterns, and methodological gaps in biomass estimation using 3D ground-based point clouds. Recent Findings We systematically reviewed and analyzed 160 research articles (comprising 171 device-specific studies) published until the end of 2025 (first appearing in 2010). Research was dominated by tree-based applications (74%), with limited attention to shrubs, grasslands or crops. TLS was the prevailing acquisition technology (78%), although MLS adoption is growing. Biomass estimation primarily relied on allometric equations, volume-based reconstructions (e.g., quantitative structure models, voxelizations, convex hull), and parametric regression models. Reported model performance was generally high in tree- and shrub-based studies (median R 2 > 0.8), but more variable in non-woody vegetation types. Despite rapid advances in 3D sensing, point-cloud-native deep-learning approaches remain rarely implemented in biomass estimation workflows. Summary Ground-based 3D sensing is maturing technically, yet methodological heterogeneity persists. Many workflows still depend on destructive calibration data, semi-manual preprocessing, and non-standardized modelling strategies, limiting reproducibility and cross-study comparability. Multi-sensor integration is emerging but lacks consistent upscaling frameworks. Future research should expand coverage of underrepresented vegetation types, promote standardized and automated processing pipelines, and systematically evaluate point-cloud-native deep learning architectures, both for extracting structural proxies and for assessing their capacity to estimate biomass directly.
Pavel Klimeš · Vladimír Voral · Nabila M. Gómez Mansur · Jakub Vašák · Jana Kholová · Sanja Ćavar Zeljkovıć · Monika Rozehnalová · Lukáš Spíchal · Jan Masner · Nuria De Diego
Early crop establishment strongly influences plant performance and yield, making seedling emergence an important trait in crop phenotyping, breeding, and stress physiology studies. However, emergence monitoring is still commonly performed manually and typically records only the final emergence percentage, limiting the analysis to other dynamic observations. Automated image-based approaches are promising but remain challenging due to the small size of plant structures, heterogeneous soil backgrounds, and variability across imaging systems. Here, we present SPROUT (AI- based S eedling PR edicti O n and trait extraction U sing RGB T ime-series), a low-cost RGB imaging pipeline for automated prediction of crop emergence dynamics and trait extraction. The system integrates instance segmentation, object-detection–based data reduction, and temporal deep learning to estimate the emergence time of individual seedlings from RGB image sequences. The pipeline then automatically reconstructs emergence curves and extracts associated traits, including final emergence percentage, EC50, and emergence synchronicity. SPROUT was developed and evaluated using barley and wheat datasets acquired with different RGB cameras under controlled growth-chamber conditions. In the development and retraining settings, the best-performing TCN model achieved 90.0% per-well accuracy with a ± 2h tolerance, supporting accurate emergence curve reconstruction. In an independent inference-only dataset, the model still captured approximate emergence dynamics, although accuracy decreased to 59.3%, indicating that SPROUT is best used as a modular pipeline that can be retrained or fine-tuned for new crop, camera, or experimental domains. A cadmium-stress case study in two contrasting wheat genotypes showed that SPROUT-derived traits captured genotype-specific establishment strategies associated with growth and metabolic responses.
Reproduction assets foundThe paper's SPROUT emergence-prediction pipeline code is publicly available on GitHub with explicit availability language, and raw images plus morphology/metabolic data are deposited on Zenodo (10.5281/zenodo.18889863). The GitHub URL is in allowed_urls; the Zenodo DOI is not, so only the code asset is listed as an ad-Code · publiccan be found online at https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compag.2026.112184.Data availability
The raw images and raw data for the morphology and metabolic
profiling on the case study are available in ZENODO (10.5281/zen
odo.18889863), and the code for the machine learning pipeline and
emergence curve analysis are available on GitHub (https://github.com/kit-pef-czu-cz/sprout-emergence-prediction).References
Albarenque, S., Basso, B., Davidson, O., Maestrini, B., Melchiori, R., 2023. Plant
emergence and maize (Zea mays L.) yield across multiple farmers’ fields. Field Crops
Res. 302. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fcr.2023.109090.Arsovski, A.A., Galstyan, A., Guseman, J.M., Nemhauser, J.L., 2012.
PhotomorpOpen asset ↗kit-pef-czu-cz/sprout-emergence-predictionpdf-raw-page:13 lines:78-112Plant phenotyping relevance matchOpenAlex · checked 15 Sept 2026
Reliable ecological indicators of mangrove structure and carbon storage are essential for monitoring coastal ecosystem conditions, yet their accuracy remains uncertain in tall, structurally heterogeneous forests, where Earth observation products differ in sensor physics, spatial resolution, and acquisition dates. Here, we present a multi-scale framework to evaluate, calibrate, and improve two widely used ecological indicators of mangrove condition—canopy height and aboveground biomass (AGB)—across approximately 7000 ha of mangroves in the Marapanim estuary, northern Brazil. The framework integrates UAV photogrammetry, radar-derived digital elevation models (TanDEM-X and SRTM), and field measurements to quantify cross-scale discrepancies and identify the main sources of uncertainty affecting indicator retrieval. High-resolution UAV canopy-height models revealed exceptionally tall Avicennia forests reaching up to 53 m, among the tallest mangroves reported globally. At the local scale, mean AGB reached approximately 648 Mg ha −1 in the southern Avicennia -dominated sector and 430 Mg ha −1 in the northern mixed Rhizophora–Avicennia sector, with local maxima of ∼800 Mg ha −1 . In contrast, radar-derived products yielded substantially lower estimates of canopy height and biomass, with height differences of 8–10 m in tall and structurally heterogeneous stands. These discrepancies reflect the combined effects of sensor-dependent canopy representation, spatial averaging, and temporal mismatch between historical radar acquisitions and recent UAV observations. To improve the ecological interpretation of these products, we implemented a calibration strategy linking field and UAV measurements to satellite observations and complemented it with UAV-based three-dimensional volumetric reconstruction of individual trees as an independent structural check on allometric biomass estimates. Our results show that canopy height and AGB derived from coarse-resolution radar products can systematically underestimate mangrove structural condition and carbon storage in tall forests unless locally calibrated. Beyond documenting exceptionally tall and carbon-dense Amazonian mangroves, this study provides a transferable framework for evaluating and improving ecological indicators of forest structure and biomass in complex coastal ecosystems.
Florida and California produce 98% of U.S. strawberries, with Florida growers' profitability depending on high yields early in the season (November-January), when prices are the highest in the U.S. market. This study aims to model the cumulative Marketable Yield and Delta Yield curves (difference in cumulative Marketable Yield between consecutive harvest time points) of strawberry genotypes to facilitate selection for greater early season productivity. The dataset comprised thirteen seasons (2013-14 to 2025-26) of advanced selection trial data. Marketable Yield trajectories were modeled using Legendre polynomial smoothing, with optimal degree selection balancing flexibility and noise reduction. The resulting coefficients served as surrogate phenotypes for genomic prediction. Forward prediction cross-validation was implemented for five seasons (2021-22, 2022-23, 2023-24, 2024-25, and 2025-26), with each season predicted using the information from all preceding seasons. For cumulative yield, across all five seasons, reconstructed curves from the Legendre models presented a clear temporal trend, with predictive ability increasing from low early-season values to peaks around Trait Dates (weeks) 7-8. In the 2021-22 and 2022-23 seasons, Legendre models showed higher predictive ability than single time-point predictions but were comparable to single-time point predictions for the other seasons. Legendre polynomial models utilizing Delta Yield achieved moderate predictive ability across five validation seasons, with consistent advantages over single time point models particularly in earlier seasons, indicating that genetic control extends beyond total yield to the trajectory of yield accumulation. Overall, Legendre modeling effectively captured the temporal dynamics of yield development while describing the trajectory with only a few parameters.
ArabidopsisMicroscopyFlowerFruitPanicle / ear / spikeVisualization / data management
Background Precise characterization of gene expression patterns across temporal, cellular, and tissue-specific contexts is fundamental to understanding plant development and function. Recent advances in ClearSee-based tissue clearing have enabled high-resolution visualization of internal structures and fluorescent reporter signals in plant tissues. Although hand sectioning can provide optical access to tissues that are not amenable to whole-mount clearing, its application to submillimeter-scale and fragile Arabidopsis organs and tissues, including developing inflorescence apices, flowers, fruits, and organ boundaries, has remained limited. Consequently, analysis of these tissues has largely depended on specialized microdissection techniques and labor-intensive histological workflows, such as wax- or resin-embedded microtomy, which restrict throughput, accessibility, and routine use. Results We developed and optimized a simple hand-sectioning and imaging method that enables routine visualization of anatomical organization and gene expression patterns at cellular resolution in small, fragile Arabidopsis tissues. This method relies only on gentle manual tissue processing under a stereomicroscope and readily available reagents, allowing reproducible preparation of delicate tissues without the need for embedding or specialized equipment. Combined with ClearSee-based clearing and fluorescent reporters, the approach enables high-resolution imaging of internal tissue architecture and gene expression, while preserving tissue integrity and fluorescence signals that are often compromised during conventional embedding and microtomy procedures. Conclusions Our method substantially reduces technical complexity, costs, preparation time, and labor associated with cellular-resolution imaging of small, fragile plant tissues. By providing a simple, scalable, and accessible alternative to conventional histological workflows, this approach facilitates routine analysis of internal developmental processes across diverse plant species.
Abstract Accurate plot-level sugarcane yield forecasting is essential for optimizing agricultural management, resource allocation, and operational planning. Existing forecasting approaches are often limited by their inability to capture temporal crop dynamics and local biophysical variability, reducing their usefulness for real-time decision-making. To develop and evaluate a Machine Learning (ML)-based framework for short-term sugarcane yield forecasting at plot level using age-segmented Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI) derived from Sentinel-2 imagery, and to determine the earliest crop stage at which reliable yield predictions can be obtained. An integrated dataset was constructed by combining productivity records from 2,132 sugarcane plots across six harvest seasons (2016–17 to 2021–22) with NDVI time series derived from Sentinel-2 satellite imagery. NDVI observations were aggregated into phenology-based temporal intervals, from which statistical features were extracted. Ten ML regression algorithms were evaluated under two forecasting schemes: a global model trained with all observations and a sector-specific approach that developed localized models for individual production sectors. Model performance was assessed using RMSE and R² on an independent test set. The sector-specific approach outperformed the global model, achieving an RMSE of 12.48 TCH and an R² of 0.7840 on the independent test set, compared with an RMSE of 16.75 TCH and an R² of 0.5724 for the global model. Sparse Partial Least Squares (spls) and Support Vector Machines with Polynomial Kernel (svmPoly) were the most frequently selected algorithms. SHAP analysis revealed that Median NDVI was the dominant predictive feature, while the Elongation I stage was the most influential phenological period. Reliable forecasts were obtained from the fifth month of crop growth (RMSE = 14.13 TCH), and prediction accuracy improved progressively as the crop matured. The proposed framework also surpassed traditional expert estimations (RMSE = 15.47), providing earlier and more accurate yield forecasts. This study demonstrates that localized, sector-specific ML models combined with temporal NDVI dynamics can provide accurate and operationally useful plot-level sugarcane yield forecasts. The framework supports proactive agronomic management, improves planning and budgeting processes, and offers a scalable methodology for precision agriculture and sustainable sugarcane production systems.
Accurate identification of crop varieties is essential for plant breeding programs and the protection of Plant Breeders' Rights (PBR), yet traditional morphological assessment methods remain subjective and time-consuming, particularly for species with complex morphological diversity such as Rubus crataegifolius . This study demonstrates that geometric morphometric techniques provide an objective, quantitative complementary approach for distinguishing Korean raspberry varieties, addressing the limitations of subjective visual assessment while remaining compatible with molecular marker analysis. We employed three complementary morphometric approaches: landmark-based analysis (19 anatomical points capturing vein junctions and leaf margins), Elliptic Fourier Descriptors (EFD) for outline contours, and a hybrid landmark-EFD dataset. Using these approaches, we analyzed primocane and floricane leaves from 10 accessions of R. crataegifolius comprising 8 varieties and 2 landraces and performed principal component analysis (PCA) and linear discriminant analysis (LDA) with leave-one-out cross-validation. As a result, among the three morphometric approaches applied to primocane and floricane leaves, landmark-based analysis of primocane leaves achieved the highest classification accuracy (87.2%), with an overall average accuracy of 72.0% (range: 51.1-87.2%) across all six analytical combinations. LDA visualization suggested the presence of four major morphological groups, and primocane leaves exhibited higher discriminatory power than floricane leaves, which may reflect greater morphological uniformity under normal growing conditions. Landmark analysis effectively detected subtle differences in leaf venation and leaflet architecture that are difficult to distinguish visually, highlighting the capacity of morphometrics for objective and multidimensional morphological analysis. These findings suggest that morphometric analysis provides a practical and cost-effective preliminary screening tool, complementary to molecular approaches, for supporting Distinctness, Uniformity, and Stability (DUS) examination in raspberry variety evaluation. This approach shows strong potential for offering a scalable solution for variety registration and protection and supporting sustainable horticultural development.
Accurate yield prediction for major grain and oilseed crops, including soybean, corn, wheat, and rice, is essential for food-security assessment and precision field management. This study presents a structured integrative review of UAV-based crop yield prediction and follows PRISMA-guided procedures for literature search, screening, and evidence synthesis. Seventy peer-reviewed studies published between 2018 and 2025 were synthesized within a "Data-Ground Truth-Model-Decision" framework. Beyond summarizing UAV platforms, sensor configurations, feature-engineering strategies, and model architectures, the review explicitly distinguishes among microplot, field, and regional prediction scales, and evaluates the characteristics and limitations of yield-label acquisition methods, including manual harvest, plot-combine harvest, and combine yield-monitor data. Existing evidence indicates that the reliability of UAV-based yield prediction depends not only on optimal image acquisition windows, multi-source feature fusion, and model architecture, but also on scale-consistent yield labels, spatially aware validation strategies, and clearly defined model outputs, such as plot-level scalar yield, field-scale yield maps, and regional yield estimates. Major bottlenecks include scale mismatch between UAV imagery and yield labels, error propagation during yield-map generation, limited cross-year and cross-region transferability, weak causal interpretability, and difficulties in deploying models under complex operational field conditions. Future research should emphasize scale-explicit benchmark datasets, quality-controlled ground-truth yield acquisition, UAV-satellite-ground data fusion, spatiotemporal deep learning, and edge-cloud collaborative systems that can translate prediction outputs into agronomic decisions. This review provides a practical pathway for developing robust, interpretable, and deployable UAV-based yield prediction systems for major grain and oilseed crops.
Abstract Moringa oleifera is widely used in dry tropical and subtropical regions due to its rapid growth and high nutritional value, yet its internal tissue organization has primarily been described using two-dimensional anatomical approaches. Here, we present a three-dimensional micro–X-ray computed tomography (micro-XCT) characterization of lumen space in stem, branch, and outer tissues (bark region) from a single M. oleifera individual. Samples were oven-dried prior to imaging; therefore, the quantified void fraction represents apparent lumen/void space in dried material and should not be interpreted as in vivo porosity. Micro-XCT datasets were segmented to quantify cross-sectional lumen area distributions and apparent void fraction from pooled reconstructed slices. All data originate from a single individual; reported metrics represent structural descriptors of pooled cross-sections and not replicated biological measurements. The stem dataset exhibited a dense arrangement of small lumen features and a high number of segmented objects, consistent with a compact woody tissue organization in the scanned region. The branch dataset showed a larger proportion of void space and a strongly right-skewed size distribution with a minority of large lumen features. The outer tissue dataset displayed heterogeneous void space organization, which likely reflects a mixture of cell lumens, intercellular spaces, and drying-related cracks, and therefore is reported descriptively without assigning xylem-vessel identity. This study provides a conservative 3D structural dataset and an image-analysis workflow for quantifying lumen space in dried M. oleifera tissues, complementing published anatomical descriptions. The results highlight strong within-plant heterogeneity across tissue types and underscore the importance of sample preparation and histological validation when interpreting micro-XCT measurements in woody plants.
Abstract Genomic selection has accelerated genetic gain in many breeding programs worldwide but genotype-by-environment-by-management (GxExM) hampers further progress for systems where these interactions are important and not well represented in the training data. Process-based crop growth models (CGMs), which encode physiological relationships between plants and their environments, can extrapolate to novel conditions but cannot directly leverage genomic information. Coupling these complementary approaches in the Crop Growth Model–Whole Genome Prediction (CGM-WGP) framework addresses both limitations, yet applications in horticultural crops remain scarce. In this study, we apply CGM-WGP to predict flowering time in broccoli ( Brassica oleracea var. italica ) and common bean ( Phaseolus vulgaris L.), two horticultural species with contrasting physiological responses to temperature and photoperiod. Genotype-specific thermal time requirements and photoperiod parameters were jointly estimated with genome-wide marker effects and predictions were compared against a Reaction Norm Genomic Best Linear Unbiased Prediction (RN-GBLUP) benchmark across four cross-validation scenarios of increasing predictive difficulty. RN-GBLUP achieved the highest accuracy under sparse-testing scenarios where training data covered all target environments, while CGM-WGP outperformed RN-GBLUP when predicting untested environments and untested genotype-environment combinations (broccoli: Pearson r = 0.66, RMSE = 9.4 days; bean: r = 0.86, RMSE = 5.2 days). These results demonstrate that CGM-WGP can be applied to horticultural crops using genome-wide markers alone, but without requiring prior identification of quantitative trait loci. CGM-WGP also provides a modular foundation that can be extended to predict the timing of other developmental transitions and output traits such as biomass and yield.
The genetic identity of coffee cultivars is fundamental to the specialty coffee sector, where premium prices are paid under the assumption that the purchased planting material corresponds to the declared variety. However, many producing countries lack the certification infrastructure necessary to guarantee this identity in their informal seed systems, exposing producers to undetected varietal non-conformity. In this study, we examine a case from a specialty coffee ( Coffea arabica L.) farm in southern Ecuador where seeds labeled as Sidra (USD 100/kg) and Gesha (USD 500/kg) were purchased without genetic or phytosanitary certification. Using a combination of SSR-based DNA fingerprinting and quantitative morphological characterization, including plant architecture, leaf functional traits, and fruit characteristics, we documented varietal identity and assessed the discriminant capacity of morphological traits across the four resulting morphotypes. Using eleven microsatellite markers for SSR fingerprinting, we found that two of the four morphotypes did not match their declared commercial identity. One plant sold as Sidra was identified as compatible with Batian, a composite variety of Kenyan origin that is genetically unrelated to Ethiopian landraces. The plants acquired as Gesha corresponded to a pure Ethiopian landrace that is genetically similar to, but not identical to, the Panamanian Geisha reference accession T.02722. Only two morphotypes were confirmed as Sidra. Furthermore, the placement of Sidra within the Core Ethiopia genetic group is consistent with prior population-level analyses and with its likely status as a selected Ethiopian landrace rather than a variety of hybrid origin. Morphological linear discriminant analysis achieved 82.4% overall classification accuracy under leave-one-out cross-validation (LOOCV), with internode length dominating the first discriminant function (LD1 = 66.6%). These results demonstrate that varietal nonconformity in the specialty coffee seed sector can extend to the inadvertent introduction of genetically unrelated material and underscore the urgent need for accessible seed certification.
Reproduction assets foundThe paper's morphological/functional trait dataset (used for the phenotyping and LDA analysis) is explicitly stated to be publicly available on Figshare (10.6084/m9.figshare.32841344). No author analysis code repository is stated; other URLs in the text are generic libraries or cited prior work.Dataset · publicThe morphological and functional trait dataset generated and analyzed in this study is publicly available in the Figshare repository at 10.6084/m9.figshare.32841344 .Open asset ↗Figshare · 10.6084/m9.figshare.32841344lines:526-568Code / dataset availability confirmedEurope PMC · checked 5 Sept 2026
Mabrouk M, Russell NJ, Alegria EV, Wang T, Liang J, Wu F, Huang Y, Wittkop B, Snowdon R, Förter L, Moritz A, Herzog E, Ganji E, Wehner G, Stahl A, Chen T.
Phenotyping stomatal traits and their developmental plasticity is time-consuming but holds potential to improve water use efficiency and photosynthesis for designing stress-tolerant crops under climate change. Here, we develop a robust, high-throughput pipeline for phenotyping 14 stomatal traits in winter wheat related to size, variation, maximum conductance, and spatial patterning. We (1) analyze over 25,000 images from 60 wheat cultivars grown in growth chamber, greenhouse, and field conditions; (2) investigate the impact of light, temperature, and reduced water and nitrogen supply on stomatal traits and their developmental plasticity across adaxial and abaxial surfaces; and (3) evaluate genetic diversity and breeding progress of stomatal traits. Stomatal traits were highly broad-sense heritable, were largely plastic in response to environmental conditions, and showed genotype-specific responses. Stomatal traits of third leaves under controlled environments with stable light and temperature conditions reliably captured the genetic variance of flag leaves under field conditions. Our data suggests that the upper leaf surface contributed more to transpiration and cooling through consistently higher stomatal density, area, and maximum conductance, while the lower surface facilitated CO₂ diffusion via systematic proper patterning and spacing. Breeding maintains the genetic diversity of stomatal traits, and our pipeline facilitates breeders to target them to enhance water use efficiency in high-yielding modern cultivars.
Reproduction assets foundThe paper's Data and code availability section states that all data are publicly available in a Zenodo repository and that the stomatal identification and trait quantification code is in the authors' public GitLab repository. Both URLs appear verbatim in the supplied blocks and match allowed_urls. The Zenodo DOI in theCode · publicThe code for all the programs in this paper, including the stomatal identification and trait quantification, can be found in our GitLab repository, https://scm.cms.hu-berlin.de/intensive-plant-food-systems-public/2026-mabrouk-stomatal-phenotyping .Open asset ↗intensive-plant-food-systems-public/2026-mabrouk-stomatal-phenotypinglines:197-215Plant phenotyping relevance matchCrossref · checked 14 Sept 2026
Context Precision agriculture can benefit from within-field boundary line analysis (BLA) to identify the most limiting factors impacting crop yield. In this study, the BLA was applied at the within-field scale using yield monitor data and key environmental factors, including evapotranspiration (ET), elevation, and the apparent soil electrical conductivity (ECa). Aims We aimed to develop and evaluate a novel BLA method to estimate Yp and quantify Yg at the within-field scale, and to assess the diagnostic potential of freely available proxy variables for identifying spatially variable yield-limiting factors in dryland wheat production. Methods We combined Mahalanobis distance-based filtering for data denoising with 2Dl kernel density estimation (KDE) and percentile thresholding to select high-density, high-yield points that define the upper yield envelope. A generalised additive model (GAM) was then used to produce the boundary line through these selected points to represent the Yp. Key results Results from the two case studies showed that this approach was robust and less sensitive to noise and outliers in fine-scale datasets. Freely available ET and elevation could be proxies to highlight the impact of some limiting factors, such as frost events or waterlogging. The ECa could identify areas where some potential soil-related factors (e.g. lower clay content reducing plant available water capacity) could be the limiting factors. Conclusions While the proxy variables effectively indicated potential limiting factors, ground-truth validation is required to confirm the underlying causal mechanisms. Implications Growers could benefit from the BLA approach to identify local yield constraints, estimate site-specific Yp and Yg, and fine-tune their inputs, leading to more efficient resource use and improved profitability.
FruitClassificationGrowth / development / phenology
Papaya is a very popular tropical fruit variety because it is rich in nutrients. However, the method of assessing the ripeness of papaya fruit is still often done manually, which can cause errors in the separation and distribution process. Thus, this study aims to develop an automatic system to classify the ripeness level of papaya fruit using the Convolutional Neural Network (CNN) method based on the ResNet50 architecture. The dataset used consists of papaya fruit images divided into four stages of ripeness, namely unripe, half-ripe, and unfit. The images then undergo a preprocessing process that includes resizing the image to 224 × 224 pixels, adjusting pixel values, and data augmentation through techniques such as rotation, zoom, and horizontal flipping to increase the variety of training data. The model is trained using a transfer learning approach by utilizing existing weights from the imagenet dataset. Model performance evaluation is carried out through the use of a confusion matrix and a classification matrix that includes accuracy, precision, recall, and F1 score. The results of the training process show that the model achieved a training accuracy of 91.72% and a validation accuracy of 83.56%, with a validation loss value of 0.4958. These findings indicate that the model can classify papaya fruit images with relatively good and consistent performance. This research is expected to support the automation process in identifying the ripeness level of papaya fruit in the agricultural and food industry sectors. Keywords: image classification, papaya, CNN, Resnet-50, deep learning.
Sweet potato virus disease (SPVD) is one of the most destructive diseases affecting sweet potato production worldwide, causing severe yield losses and posing a significant threat to food security. Vision-based intelligent diagnosis has emerged as a promising solution for large-scale SPVD monitoring due to its low cost and scalability. However, existing publicly available datasets for SPVD are extremely limited and typically focus on a single task, such as disease classification or lesion segmentation, under constrained imaging conditions. This lack of comprehensive, task-oriented datasets significantly restricts the development, evaluation, and fair comparison of advanced computer vision methods for SPVD analysis. In this study, we present SPVD-Field, a task-oriented multi-task visual dataset suite composed of two independently collected sub-datasets optimized for different computer vision tasks. Rather than constructing a single homogeneous dataset, SPVD-Field is deliberately organized into two complementary task-oriented sub-datasets: SPVD-DET, designed for disease detection with bounding-box annotations, and SPVD-SEG, designed for fine-grained lesion segmentation with pixel-level masks. The two sub-datasets were independently collected using different acquisition protocols optimized for their respective tasks, while sharing a unified semantic definition of SPVD symptoms, crop growth stages, and field environments. SPVD-Field captures substantial real-world variability in imaging scale, viewpoint, illumination, background complexity, and symptom manifestation, reflecting the inherent challenges of fieldbased disease diagnosis. We provide detailed documentation of data acquisition, annotation strategies, and quality control procedures, along with baseline benchmark results for both detection and segmentation tasks to demonstrate the usability and difficulty of the dataset. By offering a structured dataset suite rather than a single-task collection, SPVD-Field aims to support diverse research directions, including detection, segmentation, multi-task learning, and disease severity analysis, and to facilitate reproducible and comparable research in SPVD-related plant phenotyping.
Reproduction assets foundThe paper's core asset is the SPVD-Field dataset (SPVD-DET detection images with bounding-box annotations and SPVD-SEG segmentation images with pixel-level masks), explicitly deposited in a public repository via the data availability statement with a DOI link.Dataset · publicThe datasets presented in this study can be found in online repositories. The names of the repository/repositories and accession number(s) can be found below: https://dx.doi.org/10.21227/hq1q-jp43 .Open asset ↗10.21227/hq1q-jp43lines:664-703Code / dataset availability confirmedEurope PMC · checked 14 Sept 2026
Sweet potato is a nutritionally valuable crop that contributes to food security, owing to its storage roots rich in starch, sugars, and antioxidants, while requiring minimal cultivation inputs. Estimating its yield based on visible above-ground traits remains challenging due to weak and inconsistent correlations between shoot biomass and storage root development. Therefore, direct assessment of underground biomass is essential. In this study, we demonstrate the field application of ground penetrating radar (GPR) for non-destructive detection and yield estimation of sweet potato. GPR is a geophysical technique that typically transmits ultra high frequency radio waves into the soil and records reflections from subsurface objects. Electromagnetic wave simulations within the soil-root system revealed GPR signals that strongly correlate with root length, forming the basis for yield quantification. We developed an image-processing pipeline comprising static correction, gain adjustment, noise filtering, and hyperbola segmentation via the Hough transform to enable semi-automated storage root detection from GPR data. By integrating detection and quantification approaches, a linear regression model predicting sweet potato yield from GPR signals achieved moderate accuracy ( R 2 = 0.567, normalized RMSE 0.190). We established a non-destructive and low-labor approach for monitoring root systems, providing a foundation for rapid, scalable, and field-ready yield estimation in sweet potato and other root and tuber crops.
Reproduction assets found保存済みの本文根拠を更新済みルールで再検証し、公開資産1件を確認しました。Code · publicThe datasets analyzed during the current study consist of GPR line scans of the field at ALRC and list of sweet potato storage root weights. These data are available together with the analysis scripts on GitHub under open access. All data and scripts are the property of NARO and are distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International License (CC BY-NC 4.0). The repository can be accessed at: https://github.com/mtei1/GPRScript.Open asset ↗mtei1/GPRScripthtml-lines:240-264Plant phenotyping relevance matchOpenAlex · checked 15 Sept 2026
Accurate estimation of evapotranspiration (ET) is critical for irrigation management in water-scarce regions such as the Middle East and North Africa (MENA). This study compares sensible heat flux (H), latent heat flux (LE), and ET derived from eddy covariance (EC) and a boundary-layer scintillometer (BLS) operated with an aperture reducer, deployed simultaneously over an irrigated late-season potato field (1.8 ha) in the Beqaa Valley, Lebanon. Satellite NDVI observations indicate that the BLS–EC overlap period (13 October–27 November 2021) sampled the crop from peak canopy (NDVI ≈ 0.85–0.90) through the onset of senescence (NDVI ≈ 0.79). The BLS (Scintec BLS900) operated along a 140 m path. The EC system showed incomplete daytime energy-balance closure, with a regression slope of ≈0.69 and a seasonal Bowen-ratio-preserving correction factor of CF = 1.24 (a ~19% closure deficit) was used. Across the matched period, daily H from the BLS was strongly correlated with EC (r ≈ 0.82) but systematically lower, with a regression slope of ≈0.63 that persisted across timescales; this scale-invariant amplitude compression reflects the path-averaged, similarity-based nature of the scintillometer retrieval rather than the EC closure deficit, which instead governs the mean bias. BLS-derived daily ET showed a systematic positive bias relative to uncorrected EC (mean bias error, MBE = +0.30 mm d−1; +16% cumulative). Applying the Bowen-ratio-preserving correction (CF = 1.24) to EC reduced this to MBE = −0.14 mm d−1 (−6%), and the residual-to-LE correction yielded MBE = −0.15 mm d−1 (−6.4%); the latter comparison is only partly independent, as both methods share the same Rn and G. The Bowen-ratio-preserving method is therefore recommended for this dataset. Overall, the BLS captured the temporal variability of crop water use well, but residual-based ET estimates require careful treatment of the energy-balance-closure gap and are sensitive to the high BLS gap fraction (61.6% of 15 min records over the overlap, exceeding 90% at night). Once EC is closure-corrected to serve as the reference, the BLS offers a cost-effective alternative for field-scale ET monitoring in the MENA region, subject to the conditional agreement documented here.
Reproduction assets foundThe paper's flux/ET datasets are only available on request from the corresponding author, so they do not qualify as public assets. However, the Supplementary Information file (available at the MDPI supplementary URL) explicitly contains experiment sensor documentation and field/canopy images (Figures S1–S4: study site,Supplement · publicmeasurements along the beam. Because these results derive from a single crop, season, and phenological window, their generalization awaits multi-site, multi-season replication spanning the full-canopy cycle—the priority for subsequent campaigns.
Supplementary Materials
The following supporting information can be downloaded at: https://www.mdpi.com/article/10.3390/s26144398/s1 , Figure S1: Study site and potato canopy—Beqaa Valley, Lebanon; Figure S2: Eddy covariance system—full tower view (peak canopy); Figure S3: EC sensor suite close-up and soil sensor installation; Figure S4: BLS900 scintillometer—transmitter, receiver, and meteorological station.
Author Contributions
Conceptualization, HOpen asset ↗lines:251-268Plant phenotyping relevance matchCrossref · checked 8 Sept 2026
Marcel M. El Hajj · Kasper Johansen · Oliver M. Lopez Valencia · Fabio Veiga de Camargo · Yu-Hsuan Tu · Samer K. Al Mashaharawi · Omar A. López Camargo · Victor Angulo · Dominique Courault · Matthew F. McCabe
Purpose In recent years, there has been a growing use of unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV) based light detection and ranging (LiDAR) data for mapping plant area index (PAI) in orchards. However, using LiDAR time-series collected throughout the growing season to assess PAI variations in response to phenology, represents an understudied area of investigation. Furthermore, establishing the optimal spatial resolution for mapping biophysical variables of tree crops from LiDAR point cloud data remains poorly defined. Here, we assess the capability of a UAV-based LiDAR system to characterize cherry trees throughout the growing season, with a focus on monitoring PAI and the vertical structure of individual trees. Methods A time-series of 14 point cloud acquisitions with a density of 3300 points/m2 was collected between February and December 2022, covering all phenological stages of a cherry orchard in southern France. A voxel-based method was applied to create a three-dimensional grid within which PAI was estimated for each voxel. PAI was mapped by accumulating the individual voxel-based PAI values within each vertical voxel column. Results The results demonstrate that a voxel size of at least 0.7 m is required to retrieve reliable PAI estimates (RMSE = 0.58 m2.m−2, MAE = 0.48 m2.m−2, bias = 0.19 m2.m−2, rRMSE = 23%, and R2 = 0.51), while a voxel size of 1 m produced the most accurate PAI estimates (RMSE = 0.5 m2.m−2, MAE = 0.41 m2.m−2, bias = 0.07 m2.m−2, R2 = 0.59), when assessed against field-based PAI measurements obtained with a LAI-2200 Plant Canopy Analyzer. The temporal variation of canopy PAI illustrated the progression of key phenological stages, including flowering, leaf development, ripening and senescence, as well as the response of the canopy to drought stress (reduction in PAI due to leaf rolling) during the summer. The maps of PAI successfully described the variations in leaf canopy density for different cherry varieties and allowed assessment of the vertical PAI profile at the individual tree level, which provides valuable insight into tree condition. Conclusion This study confirms that seasonal UAV-LiDAR monitoring is a viable, informative approach for capturing orchard canopy dynamics at the individual tree and sub-canopy level, linking canopy structure to phenology, varietal differences, and stress responses across the growing season.
Abstract Plant diseases affecting leaves and fruits cause substantial yield and economic losses worldwide, particularly in horticultural crops cultivated under diverse agro-climatic conditions. Early and accurate disease diagnosis is essential for effective crop management; however, manual inspection is time-consuming, subjective, and often infeasible at large scale. In this work, we present the Tomato–Chilli–Papaya (TCP) Fruit and Leaf Disease Dataset, a comprehensive multi-crop image dataset designed to support deep learning-based plant disease recognition. The dataset comprises labeled RGB images of healthy and diseased leaves and fruits from three economically important crops—tomato, chilli, and papaya—captured under real-field and semi-controlled environments, reflecting significant variability in illumination, background complexity, and disease severity. To demonstrate the applicability of the dataset, several commonly used convolutional neural network (CNN) architectures, including VGG, ResNet, DenseNet, MobileNet, and EfficientNet models, were trained and evaluated on the TCP dataset using transfer learning. Experimental results show that deep CNN models can effectively learn discriminative visual features corresponding to disease-specific patterns such as leaf spots, lesions, discoloration, curling, and fruit surface abnormalities. Lightweight models such as MobileNet achieve competitive performance with reduced computational cost, while deeper architectures provide improved accuracy at the expense of higher complexity. The results highlight the importance of dataset diversity for robust model generalization across multiple crops and plant organs. The TCP dataset provides a challenging benchmark for single-crop and multi-crop disease classification and supports the development of advanced deep learning, attention-based, and explainable AI models for precision agriculture. By enabling reproducible research and realistic performance evaluation, this dataset contributes toward scalable and practical AI-driven plant disease diagnosis systems aimed at reducing yield losses and supporting sustainable agriculture.
Reproduction assets foundThe paper introduces the TCP (Tomato-Chilli-Papaya) fruit and leaf disease image dataset and reports CNN experiments on it. The dataset is publicly deposited on Mendeley Data, and the authors state that analysis code is available on GitHub. Both are paper-specific, public, and actionable.Dataset · publicData is available on Mendeley:1Open asset ↗pdf-page:27 lines:1-51Code · publicCode availability: Code is available on GitHub 2Open asset ↗GitHubpdf-page:27 lines:1-51Plant phenotyping relevance matchEurope PMC · checked 5 Sept 2026
Introduction Canopy water content (CWC) is an important indicator of crop water status **and** supports precision irrigation decision-making. Plot-level CWC estimation using UAV imagery often relies on canopy mean features, whereas the role of within-plot canopy-signal distributional information remains insufficiently examined. Methods In this study, spring maize at the Shiyanghe site was monitored using UAV-based multispectral and thermal infrared imagery. Mean, percentile, and dispersion features were extracted from effective canopy pixels within each plot. RFECV feature selection, 50 repeated random train-test splits, paired statistical tests, simulated spatial aggregation, and four regression models were used to evaluate the stage- and scale-dependent contribution of these features. Results and discussion Water stress affected both overall spectral-thermal responses and within-plot signal distributions. Before tasseling, percentile and dispersion features were frequently selected and provided complementary information, especially for tree-based models and finer aggregation scales. After tasseling, mean features generally showed more stable performance, although some distributional features still contained CWC-related information. The supplementary Xinxiang site-internal analysis suggested that, under weak water-gradient and small-sample conditions, distributional features may be frequently selected but may not consistently improve prediction accuracy. Overall, the contribution of distributional features was growth-stage-, scale-, and model-dependent.
Accurate assessment of biochemical traits in medicinal plants is essential for supporting environmentally responsible agriculture, improving crop quality, and enhancing the nutritional and pharmacological value of plant-derived products. Although medicinal plants are rich in bioactive compounds, conventional methods for measuring key biochemical components, such as soluble carbohydrates, are often time-consuming, destructive, and resource-intensive. Trachyspermum ammi L. (Ajwain) is valued for its antioxidant, antimicrobial, and digestive properties, highlighting the need for rapid, reliable, and non-destructive evaluation methods. Despite previous studies on fertilization effects on growth and bioactive compounds in T. ammi, research integrating morpho-physiological data with machine learning to predict key biochemical traits remains limited. In this study, we applied Multilayer Perceptron (MLP) and Gaussian Process Regression (GPR) models to estimate soluble carbohydrate content in a non-invasive and efficient manner. A dataset including morphological, biochemical, physiological, and macronutrient traits was used as input variables. Fertilization regimes and salicylic acid (SA) treatments were applied to induce variability in plant traits but were not directly included as model features, ensuring that predictions were trait-based. Models were trained and evaluated on n = 45 samples using five-fold cross-validation. Among the tested models, MLP and GPR achieved the highest predictive accuracy, particularly when the full feature set was used. Predictions based solely on biochemical and physiological traits were nearly as accurate as those using all variables, suggesting that these traits provide reliable and cost-effective estimates. Considering the limited dataset, results should be interpreted with caution, and future studies using larger, independent datasets are recommended to further assess model robustness and generalizability. These findings demonstrate the practical potential of the proposed machine learning approach for rapid, non-destructive assessment of biochemical traits in medicinal plants and may inform the development of GUI-based decision-support tools for precision agriculture and phytopharmaceutical research.
Quantitative imaging of plant tissues by laser ablation inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (LA-ICP-MS) is hindered by the lack of matrix-matched calibration standards. Established approaches, such as gelatine or homogenized tissue blocks, do not replicate plant matrices accurately. Here, we introduce a nano-dispenser-based calibration strategy that deposits nanolitre volumes of elemental standards directly onto paraffin-embedded grain sections, exploiting the low endogenous metal content of the endosperm to generate in situ calibration curves. Calibration performance for Mg, Mn, Cu, Zn and Mo was assessed using LA-ICP-MS imaging and Iolite data processing. The method demonstrated excellent linearity (R2 > 0.98), reproducibility across multiple grains, and sub-ppm limits of detection. Comparative analysis with in-house homogenized blocks and NIST wheat reference material confirmed superior accuracy and reproducibility of the nano-dispenser approach. As a proof-of-concept we have applied the method for the quantitative imaging of metals in a whole barley grain section and the results show excellent agreement with published data obtained by conventional liquid-mode ICP MS. The technique reported here provides a robust, scalable solution for quantitative metallomics studies of plants tissues, enabling improved assessment of nutrient distribution and supporting the development of standardised protocols for LA-ICP-MS Imaging
Accurate estimation of crop yield and biomass using UAV-based remote sensing is influenced by flight altitude, plant density, canopy structure, vegetation index (VI) selection, and crop growth stage. This study evaluated how the joint optimization of these factors influences biomass and yield prediction in common buckwheat (Fagopyrum esculentum Moench var. 'Yangjeol'). Field experiments were conducted using broadcast seeding and drill seeding at four row spacings (12.5, 20, 30, and 40 cm) following the complete Latin square design. UAV RGB imagery was acquired at the third-leaf and full-flowering stages from 30, 50, and 60 m altitudes, and vegetation indices Excess Green Index (ExG), Green Leaf Index (GLI), and Normalized Green-Red Difference Index (NGRDI)were extracted. ANOVA with Tukey's HSD revealed significant variations in biomass and yield traits among sowing treatments (p < 0.005). The highest fresh weight was recorded under drill seeding at 12.5 cm spacing, while seed weight was consistently higher under all drill seeding treatments compared with broadcast seeding. The number of seeds per plant peaked under 40 cm spacing, indicating a trade-off between planting density and reproductive output. Strong and significant correlations between vegetation indices and ground-measured traits were observed (r = 0.82-0.98), but these relationships were highly dependent on growth stage, sowing configuration, and UAV altitude. The third-leaf stage under broadcast seeding and full flowering stage under drill seeding at 20 cm spacing showed the strongest and most consistent VI-trait associations. Among UAV altitudes, 50 m provided the most stable predictive performance across traits. ExG and GLI exhibited more consistent relationships with biomass and yield parameters than NGRDI. These findings demonstrate that no single UAV altitude, vegetation index, or growth stage is universally optimal. Instead, coordinated optimization of UAV operational parameters and sowing configurationsubstantially improves the reliability of UAV-based yield and biomass estimation in buckwheat.
Posidonia oceanica meadows form one of the most important coastal habitats in the Mediterranean Sea, providing key ecosystem services including carbon sequestration, sediment stabilization, biodiversity support, and coastal protection. Despite their ecological importance, these meadows have declined in many parts of the Mediterranean over recent decades due to coastal development, pollution, anchoring activities, and climate-related pressures. Detecting such changes requires reliable and comparable monitoring data. Among the available approaches, quadrat-based field surveys remain one of the most widely used methods for describing meadow structure through indicators such as shoot density, percent cover, and leaf biometry. In practice, however, these methods are applied in different ways across monitoring programs. Variations in quadrat size, sampling design, replication strategies, and measurement protocols often make it difficult to compare results among studies or regions. This review examines the methodological foundations of quadrat-based monitoring of P. oceanica and discusses the main sources of bias that may influence monitoring outcomes. A structured literature search identified five recurrent sources of methodological bias across the studies reviewed: sampling design, quadrat size effects, observer variability, depth gradients, and seasonal variability. These factors can affect both the precision of measurements and the interpretation of ecological trends. The review also evaluates commonly used monitoring designs and ecological indices and considers recent technological developments such as photogrammetry, remote sensing, and machine-learning-based image analysis that may help reduce some methodological limitations. Drawing on this synthesis, a conceptual framework is proposed linking sources of methodological bias with their potential consequences for monitoring outcomes, and practical recommendations are outlined to improve methodological consistency and enhance the comparability of P. oceanica monitoring across the Mediterranean basin.
An integrative principal component analysis-artificial neural network (PCA-ANN) framework was developed to characterize ecotypic variation among parsley landraces and predict quality-related traits in medicinal and aromatic plants. Fifteen Iranian parsley landraces collected from diverse agro-ecological regions, together with two commercial cultivars as reference genotypes, were analyzed to establish predictive links between easily measurable morphological traits and key biochemical, mineral, and essential-oil (EO) characteristics. Twenty-one independent morphological variables were recorded and used as model inputs. To minimize redundancy and multicollinearity, PCA was applied exclusively to the morphological dataset, reducing it to a smaller set of uncorrelated components that preserved most of the variance. These components served as input features for optimized ANN architectures developed to predict antioxidant properties, EO yield and composition, and mineral nutrient content. The resulting PCA-ANN framework achieved strong predictive performance, with R² up to 0.94. It accurately predicted antioxidant, mineral, and compositional profiles from morphological traits alone, demonstrating the potential of morphological phenotyping as a rapid, non-destructive proxy for complex chemical analyses. This integrative modeling approach reduces reliance on time-consuming and costly procedures such as GC-MS and offers a practical decision-support tool for genotype selection, breeding, and quality evaluation in medicinal and aromatic crops. The proposed framework provides a scalable, data-driven strategy for advancing precision agriculture and sustainable management of herbal plant resources.
Introduction The identification and advancement of superior maize hybrids under the All India Coordinated Research Project (AICRP) on Maize rely on multi-environment evaluation integrating grain yield, maturity, and agronomic performance. Interpretation of large multi-environment datasets is often complex, time-consuming, and susceptible to subjectivity, highlighting the need for objective and reproducible decision-support tools. This study evaluated the effectiveness of REMATTOOL-R (Relative Maturity Adjustment Tool in R) in validating the existing hybrid advancement framework adopted under the AICRP on Maize. Methods Multi-environment trial data from the National Initial Varietal Trial (NIVT)-Late conducted during Kharif 2020-21 across five locations representing the Central West Zone (CWZ) of India were analysed. The dataset comprised 45 entries, including 40 experimental hybrids, four commercial checks, and one filler entry. REMATTOOL-R integrated grain yield with days to 50% anthesis, grain moisture at harvest, and harvested plant stand to facilitate simultaneous evaluation of grain yield, maturity, and adaptation-related traits. Least-square means generated from mixed-model analysis were used to identify superior hybrids based on a predefined grain yield superiority threshold (≥5%) over the standard check while maintaining comparable maturity and agronomic performance. Results REMATTOOL-R enabled rapid visualization and integrated assessment of multiple agronomic traits, allowing objective identification of superior hybrids. Five experimental hybrids-PM 21109L (Entry 30), R8050 (Entry 35), PM 21111L (Entry 32), BIO 978 (Entry 4), and DKC 9226 (Entry 9)-recorded ≥5% higher grain yield than the standard check Bio 9682 while maintaining statistically comparable days to 50% anthesis, grain moisture at harvest, and harvested plant stand. All five hybrids identified by REMATTOOL-R corresponded with the official AICRP decisions for advancement from NIVT to Advanced Varietal Trial-I (AVT-I), while three hybrids (R8050, PM 21111L, and DKC 9226) progressed further to AVT-II during subsequent testing cycles, confirming the reliability of the analytical framework. Discussion The findings demonstrate that REMATTOOL-R provides an efficient, transparent, and reproducible framework for the simultaneous evaluation of grain yield, maturity, and adaptation-related traits in maize multi-environment trials. By complementing the existing AICRP hybrid evaluation procedure, the tool facilitates objective advancement decisions and reduces subjectivity associated with manual interpretation of complex datasets. REMATTOOL-R therefore represents a valuable decision-support approach for coordinated maize breeding programmes and has considerable potential for application in large-scale hybrid evaluation systems.
Handheld Mobile Laser Scanning (HMLS) is increasingly used for high resolution 3D mapping in construction, mining and natural environments. This study evaluates the strengths and limitations of HMLS for vegetation assessment in diverse tropical eco-systems across north Queensland, Australia, including rangelands, grasslands, man-groves and estuarine wetland forests. We assessed the accuracy of HMLS-derived point clouds against ground-truth measurements and compared performance with UAV SfM–MVS surveying. HMLS achieved centimeter-level accuracy for vegetation metrics, with mean absolute errors of 8.5 cm for Diameter at Breast Height (DBH) in rangeland forests and 6.7 cm for tussock height. The system consistently produced high-density point clouds, enabling detailed characterization of vertical structure, particularly understory vegetation often obscured in aerial surveys. HMLS proved operationally flexible across closed-canopy wetlands, mangroves, rangeland forests and open grasslands. Key limi-tations included restricted horizontal point cloud penetration in dense vegetation, compounded by access constraints and environmental conditions, and point cloud drift in areas with few geometric features, such as grasslands, which introduced uncertainty in vegetation metrics. High computational demands further constrained workflow effi-ciency. Overall, HMLS demonstrates strong potential as an accurate and versatile tool for vegetation mapping and structural analysis in complex tropical ecosystems.
Background Breeding for cold tolerance in pepper (Capsicum annuum L.) is critical to mitigate yield losses caused by unpredictable temperature fluctuations associated with climate change. However, genetic improvement of this trait is hindered by challenges in accurate phenotyping, particularly at the adult stage, and by its complex genetic architecture involving numerous minor-effect loci. While genomic selection (GS) offers a promising solution to accelerate genetic gain, its predictive ability is often limited by statistical noise from uninformative markers within whole-genome marker sets. This study aimed to overcome this limitation by developing a robust phenotypic index and implementing a genome-wide association study (GWAS)-informed GS strategy. Results We phenotyped 192 pepper accessions from a core collection for cold tolerance using a visual survival score (Surv) and a newly developed composite cold-tolerance index (CTI). Both CTI (h 2 = 0.55) and Surv (h 2 = 0.53) showed moderate heritability, suggesting a substantial contribution from additive genetic variance to the phenotypic variation of cold tolerance in adult plants. GWAS identified 13 candidate genomic regions associated with cold tolerance; these regions included TRM9, CAP1, and PP2A-2, genes previously implicated in abiotic stress responses. For genomic prediction, we applied nested CV and LOOCV in which GWAS and marker selection were performed within the training set before fitting the prediction model, so that phenotypic information from the test individuals was not incorporated into the marker selection step. Compared with the full marker set of 73,502 markers, the best GWAS-selected marker sets achieved prediction accuracies of 0.237 for CTI and 0.197 for Surv in nested CV, and 0.349 for CTI and 0.294 for Surv in LOOCV. At the same marker numbers and model conditions, random marker sets showed lower accuracies of 0.205 and 0.166 for the nested CV, and 0.068 and - 0.064 for the LOOCV, respectively. Conclusions Our study demonstrates that assessing cold tolerance via the CTI helps overcome the limitations of discrete survival scoring. By turning ordinal data into a continuous spectrum, the CTI can unmask hidden genetic variation. In addition, GWAS identified candidate genomic regions and genes associated with cold response, and nested CV and LOOCV showed that GWAS-selected marker sets could achieve higher prediction accuracy than the full marker set and random marker sets of the same marker number. This integrated framework offers a practical approach for interpreting the genetic basis of adult-stage cold tolerance in pepper and improving the efficiency of genomic prediction models for complex abiotic stress traits.
Hu Y, Cui S, Li H, Hou H, Xu Z, Hao B, Cai L, Zhu L, Wang J, Chang K, Li W, Shao W, Zhu S, Li C, Zhao Z, Jiang L, Tian Y, Liu X, Liu S, Chen L, Zhou S, Wan J.
Rice lodicules are specialized floral organs located at the base of the ovary that undergo dynamic morphological changes during the flowering period. Water uptake-driven swelling and subsequent dehydration-induced shrinkage of the lodicules trigger floret opening and closure, respectively. Although lodicules play a central role in floret movement, standardized methods for quantitatively monitoring their temporal morphological changes remain limited. Here, we describe a detailed and reproducible workflow for lodicule sampling, dissection, imaging, and quantitative morphometric analysis. Florets are collected at predefined clock time points during the flowering period, and lodicules are carefully isolated under a stereomicroscope. High-resolution imaging is performed under consistent acquisition settings, followed by precise measurement of lodicule length, width, and thickness using image analysis software. This protocol emphasizes positional consistency in sampling, uniform imaging parameters, and standardized data analysis to enhance reproducibility. This method is suitable for evaluating the effects of genetic background or environmental conditions on lodicule morphology. By providing a standardized analytical framework, this protocol enables accurate and quantitative morphometric analysis of rice lodicules during floret opening. Key features • Standardized time-point sampling minimizes variability caused by diurnal fluctuations and handling during lodicule morphometric analysis. • Enables reproducible isolation and imaging of rice lodicules while preserving native morphology and preventing dehydration-induced artifacts. • Time-resolved workflow enables analysis of rapid morphological changes associated with floret opening and closure. • Applicable for comparing genetic and environmental effects on lodicule morphology under controlled experimental conditions.
Practical three-dimensional (3D) phenotyping in large-scale orchards with repetitive row structures remains challenging, and systematic evidence comparing both accuracy and acquisition efficiency under outdoor conditions remains limited. This study presents a field-deployable evaluation framework and implements it in a 2-ha commercial Japanese pear orchard trained under a joint V-trellis system. Using a terrestrial laser scanner (TLS) as the reference, we evaluated two handheld LiDAR systems (a low-cost SLAM-based system and a high-performance system), structure from motion / multi-view stereo (SfM/MVS) reconstructions from three camera platforms (a digital camera, an action camera, and a 360° camera), and 3D Gaussian splatting (3DGS) constructed from action-camera video. Measurements were taken at two spatial scales to capture scale-dependent effects. In the span-scale survey (4 m), location error was derived from TLS-referenced target coordinate differences, and reconstruction error was quantified using cloud-to-mesh distances with cubic targets. In the row-scale survey (one tree row), positional stability during continuous mapping was evaluated as location error. Operational metrics (acquisition time, data volume, and processing effort) were also documented. The results demonstrate clear trade-offs among the methods: LiDAR enables rapid wide-area acquisition but is susceptible to cumulative drift in row-structured environments, whereas SfM/MVS provides superior geometric fidelity at the cost of increased time and data volume. Although 3DGS is less suitable for precise quantitative measurement, it demonstrates strong potential for intuitive visualization of orchard structure and fruit distribution. These findings highlight the need for staged, purpose-specific, and seasonally adaptive strategies for orchard-scale digital twin development.
A new tomato fruit model predicts cell numbers, cell sizes, sugar contents, and fresh weight. Transport of water and saccharides from plant stem to fruit cells is computed following biophysical rules. Saccharide fruit sink is based on sugar metabolism, rates of cell division and expansion, and starch and cell wall dynamics. Osmotic and hydraulic potentials in cells and their vacuoles drive water import at given cell-wall extensibility. The interaction of demand and transport determines saccharide flow and biomass. We incorporated physiological responses to temperature, pruning, and plant shading. Existing and new parameters were calibrated with data from fruit heating and fruit pruning experiments of contrasting tomato cultivars. Model validation for different strategies of fruit heating and pruning, and plant shading was successful. Increased fruit temperature was shown to reduce fruit weight, as expected. Growth response to fruit pruning or shading were fully explained by changes in phloem sucrose concentration. Hydraulic conductivity of vascular tissue as well as sucrose and hexose carrier capacities were crucial fruit properties determining sugar flux. Model scenarios on knockdown of sucrose synthase and active hexose uptake affected sugar composition. The model creates an important step towards predicting fruit quality and taste under diverse growth conditions.
Non-structural carbohydrates (NSC) stored in the stem play a crucial role in supporting yield formation in rice. However, internode morphological factors associated with NSC accumulation remain unclear. This study aimed to clarify the relationship between internode morphology and NSC accumulation and to identify a robust morphological indicator for evaluating NSC accumulation capacity. Two years of field experiments were conducted using multiple cultivars. The NSC content was quantified for individual internodes and at the whole-plant culm level, and its relationships with internode morphological traits were analyzed. Since the upper internodes (UIN; first and second internodes) and lower internodes (LIN; third and subsequent internodes) exhibited contrasting roles in NSC accumulation, a novel index was introduced, the volume composition ratio (VCR) of UIN/LIN, which represents their relative volumetric contributions within a culm. The VCR of UIN/LIN showed the strongest correlation with culm NSC and high reproducibility across years, outperforming simple morphological traits. In addition, plant growth regulator treatments that altered VCR were accompanied by changes in culm NSC accumulation. Accordingly, the VCR of UIN/LIN serves as a robust morphological indicator of culm NSC accumulation capacity, providing a practical framework for improving stem carbohydrate storage capacity in rice.
Near-infrared (NIR) spectroscopy combined with machine learning algorithms has been widely adopted for rapid assessment of grain quality attributes. However, conventional calibration models often suffer from overfitting and instability when applied to high-dimensional spectral data with limited sample sizes. In this study, we developed a novel bagging partial least squares (BA-PLS) algorithm for accurate and stable prediction of wheat protein content. A total of 394 wheat samples were collected and their NIR spectra from 950 to 1650 nm were acquired. The BA-PLS algorithm generates multiple bootstrap subsamples, trains PLS models on each subsample, and aggregates their predictions through averaging, effectively reducing prediction variance while preserving the low-bias properties of PLS. The performance of BA-PLS was comprehensively compared with that of standard PLS, support vector regression (SVR), and extreme gradient boosting (XGBoost). The results demonstrated that BA-PLS achieved superior predictive performance with a coefficient of determination ( R P 2 ) of 0.9600 and a root mean square error (RMSE P ) of 0.3058%. Notably, while SVR and XGBoost exhibited severe overfitting with training to test R 2 gaps exceeding 0.4045, BA-PLS exhibited excellent generalization with a minimal R 2 gap of 0.0261. Furthermore, BA-PLS provided reliable prediction uncertainty estimates through the standard deviation of ensemble predictions. The proposed BA-PLS algorithm offers a practical and stable solution for rapid wheat protein quantification, with potential applicability to other cereal quality assessment tasks.
MaizeField / plotWhole plant / canopy / plot / fieldPhysiological trait estimationGrowth / development / phenologyWater status / transpiration
Understanding evapotranspiration (ET) partitioning into soil evaporation (E) and plant transpiration (T) is crucial for improving agricultural water use efficiency in water-scarce regions. The isotope mass balance (IMB) method and AquaCrop model are two widely used approaches for ET partitioning, yet their comparative performance across different crop growth stages remains poorly characterized. This study systematically compared these two methods using two consecutive years (2012-2013) of field isotopic observations in a summer maize field on the North China Plain, a core maize production area facing severe agricultural water scarcity. Stable isotope analysis showed that the local meteoric water line (LMWL) had a slope lower than the global meteoric water line. The 0-5 cm surface soil water evaporation lines had slopes of 5.84 (2012) and 8.06 (2013), confirming significant evaporative enrichment in the topsoil. Plant water isotopic composition closely resembled that of 40-100 cm deep soil water, indicating limited root uptake from the surface layer. IMB-estimated transpiration ratio (T/ET) exhibited distinct phenological patterns, increasing from 37 to 44% at jointing to a peak of 94-96% at filling, then declining to 84-85% at maturity. The two methods agreed well during filling to maturity (differences of 2-10%), but compared with the IMB method, AquaCrop substantially underestimated T/ET at jointing (0.9% vs. 43.8% in 2013) due to its canopy-cover-based transpiration algorithm. These findings identify the filling stage as the critical water demand period, providing a quantitative reference for precision irrigation management under similar climate and soil conditions.
ABSTRACT Vase life is a key determinant of cut flower quality and market value. Conventional vase life assessment relies on visual inspection and physiological monitoring over several days to weeks, making it labor‐ and time‐intensive. This study introduces a rapid and noninvasive approach using plant acoustics to assess postharvest vase‐life‐related variation in cut chrysanthemum flowers. Six chrysanthemum cultivars were grown under two supplemental lighting treatments (Hybrid and LED) and two planting densities (54 and 74 plants m −2 ). Acoustic monitoring was compared with optical microscopy for the assessment of xylem vessel diameter, while conventional vase‐life testing was performed in parallel. Optical microscopy validated the acoustic measurements, with both methods consistently identifying vessel radii around 10 μm. The acoustic radius (), derived from pulse settling time measurements, showed cultivar‐ and planting‐density‐specific variation. Linear mixed‐effects modelling demonstrated that the relationship between acoustic radius and vase life differed significantly among cultivars, indicating that a universal relationship across cultivars is not supported. These findings show that acoustic monitoring provides a meaningful noninvasive proxy for vase‐life‐associated stem traits and may serve as a useful cultivar‐calibrated tool for evaluating postharvest longevity in cut chrysanthemums.
Leaf orientation (posture) influences photosynthesis and plant responses to environmental cues. However, the existing methods for quantifying posture typically compress its inherently three-dimensional structure into scalar values or single vectors, leaving the 3D aspects of leaf movement poorly understood. For a more complete geometric description, we propose representing leaf-blade posture by an orthonormal basis (ONB), defined as three perpendicular unit vectors aligned with the developmental axes of the leaf. This ONB serves as a local coordinate system and corresponds to rotation matrices used to represent orientation in three-dimensional space, embedding leaf posture within the mathematical structure of the special orthogonal group SO(3). Using three-dimensional point-cloud data, we reconstructed an ONB aligned with the three axes of the leaf blade and quantified elevation and azimuth angles. When applied to diurnal posture changes, the resulting angular patterns were consistent with previous observations. We then visualized posture changes after gravitational perturbation as continuous rotational trajectories. These trajectories could be compared with mathematically defined geodesic shortest paths and used to simulate alternative reorientation routes that satisfy constraints. The rotational trajectories could also be separated into swing and twist components, which reflect distinct deformation modes. The ONB can be obtained not only from three-dimensional point clouds but also from other measurement tools, making the approach broadly applicable. Conceptually, ONB representation places leaf posture within the geometric structure of SO(3), enabling the use of well-established mathematical tools such as rotational distance and geodesics for analyzing leaf reorientation.
A. Conte · A. Carli · M. Haworth · G. Marino · V. Montesano · D. Danzi · G. Atzori · A.P.M. Fabbri · A. Daccache · R.M. Balestrini · M. Centritto
Field / plotLeafWhole plant / canopy / plot / fieldPhysiological trait estimationPhotosynthesis / fluorescenceWater status / transpiration
• Rapid methods show reduced robustness in hot summer Mediterranean field conditions. • Method‑dependent differences in Vc max estimates strongly affect A - g s model outputs. • Steady‑state A / C i provides the most accurate gs simulations. • RACiR provides Vc max estimates closest to A / C i and represents a suitable option for high‑throughput phenotyping. The maximum rate of carboxylation of ribulose-1,5-bisphosphate ( Vc max ) represents a key biochemical trait and a fundamental parameter in C3 models of photosynthesis, as it enables an accurate representation of leaf carbon assimilation and gas exchange. Accurate estimation of this parameter is essential for process‑based modelling across scales, as uncertainties in Vc max may influence model behaviour when scaled from leaves to larger spatial domains. Traditionally, Vc max is derived from the response of photosynthesis ( A ) to intercellular CO 2 concentration ( C i ), known as the A / C i curve, a reliable but time-consuming and labour-intensive procedure that limits its application in high-throughput phenotyping. To address this limitation, rapid approaches such as the Rapid A/Ci Response (RACiR) and the one-point (OP) methods have been developed. However, their accuracy, reliability, and reproducibility must be carefully validated, as discrepancies arising from the use of heterogeneous data sources for model parameterization may introduce significant uncertainty. In this study, the RACiR and the OP methods were evaluated against the conventional A / C i curve in a two-year field experiment on four Cannabis sativa varieties grown under different irrigation regimes. Photosynthetic traits derived from each method were compared and integrated into a coupled A -stomatal conductance ( g s ) model to assess how method-driven differences affect model outputs. Overall, photosynthetic traits estimated from A / C i curves provided the most accurate simulations of g s , with R 2 values ranging from 0.55 to 0.84 and the lowest RMSE. In contrast, traits derived from RACiR and OP methods resulted in g s overestimations of 26.7% and 50.7%, respectively. Field application of RACiR was hindered by high failure rates under high summer temperatures, while OP estimates showed substantial variability. These results indicate that, despite the appeal of faster alternatives, the A / C i curve remains the most reliable method for estimating Vc max under Mediterranean field conditions, particularly when high accuracy is required for model-based applications.
To address the insufficient characterization of vertical heterogeneity in potato canopy leaf nitrogen content (LNC), this study developed a layer-specific LNC estimation framework based on canopy hyperspectral reflectance, fractional-order derivative (FOD) transformation, and two-band and three-band optimized spectral indices. Partial least squares regression (PLSR) was then used to evaluate the predictive ability of the selected spectral indices for Top, Middle, and Bottom LNC. Field experiments were conducted from 2022 to 2023 in the semi-arid region of Yulin, Shaanxi Province, China. Canopy hyperspectral reflectance from 350 to 1830 nm and LNC measurements of upper (Top), middle (Middle), and lower (Bottom) leaves were synchronously acquired during the tuber formation stage. The results showed that potato canopy LNC exhibited a clear vertical gradient, following the order Top LNC > Middle LNC > Bottom LNC. Traditional vegetation indices were significantly correlated with LNC, but their correlations decreased with increasing canopy depth, with the highest correlation for Bottom LNC being only 0.524. Compared with traditional vegetation indices, FOD-based two-band indices showed stronger Pearson correlations with layer-specific LNC. Under FOD1.5, the maximum absolute Pearson correlation coefficients (|r|) between the selected two-band indices and LNC reached 0.855, 0.849, and 0.814 for Top, Middle, and Bottom LNC, respectively. The three-band optimized spectral indices further enhanced spectral information extraction, with maximum |r| values of 0.893, 0.885, and 0.852, respectively. However, cross-year validation produced substantially lower R 2 values, indicating limited temporal transferability of the selected indices and the need for further validation before broader application. Compared with the traditional vegetation index model, it increased the testing-set R 2 for Bottom LNC by 0.279 and reduced RMSE from 0.159 to 0.113. These results suggest that FOD1.5-integrated three-band optimized spectral indices can improve the indirect estimation of layer-specific LNC from canopy reflectance, particularly for Bottom LNC, where the reflectance-LNC association is affected by canopy signal attenuation and mixing. The findings provide a methodological reference for describing canopy vertical nitrogen status and functional heterogeneity in potato, while their broader applicability requires further validation across growth stages, cultivars, sites, and nitrogen management conditions.
Chlorophyll content represents a key growth indicator for maize. The traditional SPAD (Soil and Plant Analyzer Development) method, though easy to operate, is inefficient, destructive, and unsuitable for high-throughput field monitoring. UAV (Unmanned Aerial Vehicle) remote sensing technology is highly efficient and detects abundant indicators, enabling large-scale SPAD measurement. In this study, 18 vegetation indices and eight texture features were selected as the indicator system by combining prior knowledge and experimental analysis. In a two-year maize density experiment, multispectral images were collected in the growth period. The correlations among SPAD values, multispectral indices and texture features were analyzed using Pearson correlation coefficients. Then the detection accuracies of three algorithms, i.e., RF (Random Forest), PLSR (Partial Least Squares Regression), and SVR (Support Vector Regression), were compared under this indicator system. Compared with models constructed using single vegetation indices or single texture features, the estimation accuracy of the indicator system at the jointing stage was improved by 0.13 and 0.22, respectively. The results showed that SVR achieved the highest estimation accuracy among the three algorithms, with determination coefficients (R2) of 0.73, 0.77and 0.70 at the jointing, silking, and grain-filling stages, respectively. This study established a non-destructive monitoring framework for chlorophyll content during the entire maize growth stage based on UAV data.
Zhao-Kui Li · Wen Cheng · Xue-Wei Gong · Qing-Song Yu · Heng-Fang Wang · Zhong-Yi Pang · Yan-Hui Peng · Xue-Kai Sun · Ming-Yong Li · Guang-You Hao
Field / plotLaboratory / benchtopLeafPhysiological trait estimationSegmentationWater status / transpiration
Abstract Climate-change-driven drought intensification increasingly threatens forest ecosystems, highlighting an urgent need for accurate monitoring of forest water stress. Leaf water potential (Ψleaf) is a key integrative indicator, yet conventional measurements are destructive and unsuitable for large-scale or high-frequency monitoring. Hyperspectral remote sensing offers a promising alternative, but robust canopy-level Ψleaf estimation remains constrained by limited labeled data and heterogeneous environmental conditions. Here, we develop a cross-scale framework integrating supervised contrastive learning with deep transfer learning to translate robust leaf-scale pretraining into canopy-scale Ψleaf estimation from hyperspectral data in a Populus × euramericana ‘I-214’ plantation. Hyperspectral imagery was captured at the leaf scale under controlled laboratory conditions (n = 229) and at the canopy scale using a UAV-based platform (n = 200), together with paired Ψleaf measurements. Reflectance consistently increased with declining Ψleaf at both scales, supporting the feasibility of cross-scale modeling. At the leaf scale, physics-consistent spectral augmentation coupled with contrastive learning enhanced feature discrimination and predictive stability under small-sample conditions (R2 = 0.8030). Transfer learning via progressive fine-tuning enabled efficient scaling of the leaf-level pretrained model to canopy-level prediction despite structural and environmental complexity and restricted field data ranges, achieving R2 = 0.7605 and RMSE = 0.1056 MPa. Coupling with individual-tree crown segmentation further enabled spatially explicit mapping of canopy Ψleaf and plot-level forest water stress dynamics. These results demonstrate that combining contrastive representation learning with cross-scale transfer provides a practical pathway for physiological monitoring and scalable, climate-smart forest phenotyping in data-constrained forested environments.
Zhigang Zheng · Junfei Huang · Manqing Tian · Haijun Liu · X Y Li · Youbao Sun · Qisheng Zhong · Taohong Huang · Qing Liu · Dexin Kong · Yongming Liu · Haiyang Wang
X-ray / CTRootMorphology / geometry measurement2D/3D reconstructionRoot system architecture
A dual-substrate X-ray CT platform using high-contrast media and modular scanning overcomes traditional resolution and size limits to enable large-scale, high-resolution 3D in situ root phenotyping.
Agricultural production in arid regions is strongly constrained by water stress, making timely evaluation of crop water conditions increasingly important. However, conventional measurements of plant moisture content (PMC) primarily rely on destructive oven-drying methods, which are not only labor-intensive and time-consuming but also constrained by limited sample size and spatial coverage. These shortcomings make it difficult to capture the spatial heterogeneity of crop water status across large agricultural regions, thereby restricting regional-scale water diagnosis and precision irrigation decision-making. Focusing on silage maize cultivated in the arid region of Gansu Province, China, this work develops a regional PMC estimation approach by combining multi-source remote sensing data. High-resolution unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV) observations were integrated with Sentinel-2 and Sentinel-3 imagery, while radiometric and temperature corrections were applied to improve data consistency. A set of spectral, textural, and thermal features was derived from multispectral, visible, and thermal infrared datasets. Feature selection based on Pearson correlation was then carried out, followed by the construction of three models, namely Random Forest (RF), Support Vector Machine (SVM), and Partial Least Squares Regression (PLSR). Among them, the RF model performed more reliably, achieving a validation R2 of 0.92 with relatively low prediction error. In addition, calibration using UAV data led to a clear improvement in satellite-based estimates, with R2 increasing from 0.52–0.62 to 0.71–0.74. The generated PMC maps captured both the temporal decline during the growing season and the spatial variability across the study area. Overall, the proposed approach offers a practical option for large-scale monitoring of crop water status and can support irrigation management in water-limited environments.
Published1 Jul 2026Microscopy and microanalysis : the official journal of Microscopy Society of America, Microbeam Analysis Society, Microscopical Society of CanadaCited by 0 · OpenAlex ↗
Fuzhou represents a critical center for tea genetic diversity, yet the micromorphological basis for differentiating its local landraces remains poorly understood. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) was employed to investigate the foliar micromorphology of 28 tea landraces from Fuzhou and to characterize structural differences among them. Adaxial epidermal wax ornamentation, stomatal architecture, and nonglandular trichome patterns provided important taxonomic characters for germplasm classification. Our analysis reveals that stomata are consistently paracytic and randomly oriented on the abaxial surface. However, their dimensions exhibit high phenotypic plasticity, with mean areas ranging from 421.92 to 822.26 µm2. Leaf surface ornamentation showed high phenotypic variability, with three identifiable types: straight, wrinkled, and undulated. The length, width, and type of nonglandular trichomes varied among the landraces, with values of nonglandular trichome length ranging from 269.99 to 632.31 µm and diameter from 9.72 to 14.62 μm. The nonglandular trichome ornamentation was categorized as smooth, long-stripe, and short-stick. The study demonstrated that SEM-based analysis of foliar micromorphological traits provides a valuable tool for tea germplasm identification and cultivar improvement. Specifically, the combination of adaxial epidermal wax ornamentation and nonglandular trichome surface ornamentation provides stable and reliable diagnostic micromorphological markers for accurate differentiation and identification of Fuzhou tea landraces, filling a critical micromorphological gap in the systematic study of local tea germplasm.
Accuracy crop distribution mapping and reliable yield estimation are essential for overcoming fragmentation and decentralization in smallholder farming systems of the Loess Plateau gully region. Multi-source remote sensing data, ancillary datasets, and machine learning techniques were integrated to map maize distribution and estimate yield. First, Sentinel-2 temporal spectral features, vegetation indices, and topographic variables were integrated to identify the optimal maize mapping model by a comparing machine learning algorithms: Random Forest (RF), Extra Trees (ET), Gradient Boosting Decision Tree (GBDT), and Histogram-Based Gradient Boosting Decision Tree (HGBDT). Subsequently, Sentinel-2 optical data and ERA5-Land meteorological data were dynamically resampled and spatiotemporally fused. A maize yield estimation model was then developed by integrating these fused predictors with in-situ measured maize yield samples. Finally, SHapley Additive exPlanations (SHAP) analysis was applied to quantify the feature contribution to both crop mapping and yield estimation, improving model transparency and interpretability. The results indicate that RF model achieved superior performance for maize identification in heterogeneous agricultural landscapes, with an overall Accuracy of 0.825, Precision of 0.849, Recall of 0.933, and F1-Score of 0.889. In the multi-source fusion-based yield estimation task, the HGBDT model yielded the highest predictive accuracy, with an R² of 0.6, RMSE of 1.07 t/ha, relative RMSE (rRMSE) of 11.49%, and MAE of 0.86 t/ha. Here, a methodological advancement is presented toward accurate and interpretable crop mapping and yield estimation in the ecologically complex and topographically fragmented Loess Plateau.
Poppy Miller · Sarah Tallon · Kimberley C. Snowden · David Chagné · Toshi Foster · Linley Jesson · Sara Montanari
BlueberryFlowerGrowth / time-series analysisGrowth / development / phenology
Flowering in perennial crops is a trait influenced by genetics, environmental cues and plant vigor. Here, we studied the genetic and environmental control of repeat flowering (RF) in blueberry ( Vaccinium corymbosum ). RF was measured in a full-sib population from a cross between repeat and non-repeat flowering cultivars (‘Hortblue Petite’ and ‘Nui’, respectively). Longitudinal phenotypes were used to model the area under the curve for the first and second flowering peaks. We found that RF was strongly influenced by bush size and vigor, which we then incorporated into the area under the flowering curve models. Quantitative trait loci linked to both first bloom and RF were detected at three hotspots on chromosomes 4 and 10, and genes of interest known to regulate flowering under both temperature and photoperiod control were discussed. The phenotyping protocol and statistical modelling method reported here are an effective strategy for the investigation of complex interactions between multiple genetic loci and environmental variables on developmental traits, such as flowering. Experimental designs with replicated multi-environment and multi-year measurements are now needed to corroborate our results and further elucidate the determinism of RF in blueberry.
The co-evolutionary arms race between crops and their parasites requires continuous identification of new resistance mechanisms. Broomrape (Orobanche cumana), a root parasitic plant, poses a severe threat to sunflower (Helianthus annuus) production, yet the genetic architecture underlying host resistance remains poorly understood. To address this, we established a high-throughput phenotyping platform to quantify root infestation across a diverse sunflower association mapping (SAM) population. Combining this phenotypic resource with a dual genome-wide association study (GWAS) strategy based on both single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) and k-mers, we highlight the genetic basis of broomrape resistance at unprecedented resolution. Our analyses revealed quantitative trait loci (QTLs) and identified novel candidate genes, including putative leucine-rich repeat receptor kinases potentially involved in parasite recognition and defense activation. Importantly, the k-mer approach circumvented reference genome bias and uncovered key genomic introgressions from wild Helianthus relatives that contribute substantially to resistance. These findings demonstrate the utility of integrating high-resolution phenotyping with advanced association mapping to dissect complex host-parasite interactions. Moreover, they emphasize the enduring value of wild germplasm as a reservoir of adaptive variation, providing crop breeders with crucial tools to counter the rapid evolutionary dynamics of parasitic plants.
Reproduction assets foundThe paper's Data availability statement explicitly deposits the paper-specific raw phenotyping images on Zenodo, the k-mer genotype data on the sunflower genome database, and the authors' analysis code on the Hübner lab GitHub repository, all with public URLs.Dataset · publicAll phenotypes raw images for Gadot and Yavor are available through the Zenodo repository ( https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.18961268 ).Open asset ↗Zenodo · 10.5281/zenodo.18961268lines:238-238Code · publicCode is accessible through the Hübner lab github: https://github.com/hubner-lab/Sunflower-Broomrape-paper .Open asset ↗Hübner lab github · hubner-lab/Sunflower-Broomrape-paperlines:238-238Plant phenotyping relevance matchCrossref · checked 8 Sept 2026
Unmanned Aerial Vehicle (UAV)-based remote sensing using high-throughput spectral imaging has emerged as an effective non-destructive alternative for large-scale agricultural monitoring. This study evaluates the performance of UAV-based multispectral (MSI) and hyperspectral (HSI) imaging combined with machine learning for estimating in-season nitrogen uptake in spring wheat and canola. Field trials were conducted at irrigated and non-irrigated sites in southern and central Alberta, Canada, respectively, over three growing seasons (2023–2025). Coincident with ground-truth tissue sampling, aerial imagery was collected and processed to train and validate six machine learning models, using ~520 matchups per crop. All models successfully estimated nitrogen uptake across years and locations, although performance varied by sensor and data types. For canola, ANN produced the highest MSI-based accuracy (R2 = 0.83, RMSE = 0.5%), whereas HSI data improved prediction performance, with SVR achieving the best results (R2 = 0.90, RMSE = 0.40%). In wheat, ANN yielded the highest accuracy for both MSI and HSI data (R2 = 0.77, RMSE = 0.54% for MSI; R2 = 0.8, RMSE = 0.48% for HSI). These findings demonstrate that UAV-based spectral imaging combined with machine learning provides a reliable and scalable approach for non-destructive nitrogen uptake estimation. Although MSI sensors produced strong predictive performance, the enhanced spectral resolution of HSI data consistently improved estimation accuracy for both crops across varied growing conditions.
Accurate crop yield estimation is essential for food-security planning, supply-chain logistics and crop-insurance indexing. However, field-level forecasting in rainfed cotton systems can be affected by human bias, spatial error and seasonal variability. This study evaluated the comparative accuracy, statistical efficiency and predictive reliability of three field sampling protocols for cotton yield estimation under actual farming conditions. Primary data were collected from 31 commercial cotton plots in Sanglud, Morgaon Sadijan and Ural villages in Akola district, Maharashtra. The evaluated methods were the 5 x 5 m crop-cut experiment, plant-based estimation at the open-boll stage and area-based quadrat sampling, assessed across the first and second picking phases. Predictive performance was compared with ground-truth harvested yields using mean actual yield, percentage error, standard deviation and root mean square error (RMSE). The 5 x 5 m crop-cut method showed the closest agreement with actual yield, with low dispersion (s = 2.37) and RMSE (1.24), producing a +5.97% error in the first picking and a -0.29% error in the second picking. The plant-based method overestimated yield by +73.60% in the first picking and underestimated by -31.20% in the second picking, reflecting selection bias and late-season boll attrition. Quadrat sampling showed persistent overestimation (+18.30% and +30.40%; s = 3.73). The findings support the 5 x 5 m crop-cut protocol as the most reliable approach among the methods evaluated.
The maturity level of green vegetables is an important factor affecting product quality, market value, and shelf life. Maturity identification is generally performed visually based on leaf color changes, making the assessment subjective and potentially inconsistent. This study aims to develop a classification model for green vegetable maturity levels using a combination of color feature extraction and a Convolutional Neural Network (CNN) to provide a more objective and accurate system. The research began with image acquisition of green vegetables categorized into three maturity levels: immature, mature, and overripe. Preprocessing included image resizing, normalization, and segmentation. Color feature extraction was performed using RGB and HSV color spaces to represent maturity conditions. The dataset was divided into training and testing sets with a 90:10 ratio and processed using a CNN architecture. Model performance was evaluated using accuracy, precision, recall, and F1-score. Results showed that the proposed model achieved 95.2% accuracy, 94.8% precision, 95.6% recall, and 95.1% F1-score. These findings indicate that combining color features and CNN effectively supports automated vegetable sorting and quality control systems.
Wild-relative introgression broadens wheat diversity, as exemplified by the Multiple Synthetic Derivatives (MSD) population, a unique hexaploid wheat resource capturing extensive genetic diversity from Aegilops tauschii. However, root system architecture (RSA), a key determinant of resource acquisition and stress adaptation, remains poorly characterized in this population. Here, we established a practical two-dimensional root phenotyping framework that enables continuous imaging to track RSA traits and their responses to heat stress. Using this framework we evaluated MSD417 as a representative genotype against its recurrent parent, Norin 61 (N61). Under control conditions, MSD417 displayed greater total root length, root system width, and convex hull area than N61 (p < 0.001), indicating enhanced early root vigor. MSD417 also exhibited larger second pair seminal root angle (p < 0.001) and length (p < 0.01) across both conditions, suggesting enhanced horizontal root exploration while maintaining similar rooting depth to N61 (p = 0.981). Heat stress reduced overall root growth and narrowed genotypic differences, limiting RSA expression. Microscopic observations revealed a lower coleorhiza height-to-width ratio in MSD417. These findings demonstrate the effectiveness of the two-dimensional platform for early-stage RSA phenotyping and highlight Aegilops tauschii-derived germplasm as a source of favorable root traits in wheat breeding.
Reproduction assets foundThe paper's data availability statement deposits the paper-specific phenotyping inputs publicly on Zenodo: root images of wheat N61 and MSD417 (the two genotypes measured for RSA traits) and microscopic coleorhiza images. These are public, paper-specific image datasets directly underlying the study's measurements. No作者Dataset · publical development in arid regions.
ORCID
Sultan Md Monwarul Islam http://orcid.org/0009-0002-7219-2104
Izzat Sidahmed Ali Tahir http://orcid.org/0000-0002-1711-6961
Kinya Akashi http://orcid.org/0000-0002-9991-5766
Data availability statement
The root images of wheat N61 and MSD417 are deposited in the Zenodo data repository under https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.18080159 and https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.18079748, respectively. The microscopic images of
coleorhiza are deposited under https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.18091131. The other original contributions presented
in the study are included in the article and/or supplementary material.
References
Alahmad, S., El Hassouni, K., Bassi, F. M., DiOpen asset ↗Zenodo · 10.5281/zenodo.18080159pdf-raw-page:14 lines:1-49Dataset · publicMd Monwarul Islam http://orcid.org/0009-0002-7219-2104
Izzat Sidahmed Ali Tahir http://orcid.org/0000-0002-1711-6961
Kinya Akashi http://orcid.org/0000-0002-9991-5766
Data availability statement
The root images of wheat N61 and MSD417 are deposited in the Zenodo data repository under https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.18080159 and https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.18079748, respectively. The microscopic images of
coleorhiza are deposited under https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.18091131. The other original contributions presented
in the study are included in the article and/or supplementary material.
References
Alahmad, S., El Hassouni, K., Bassi, F. M., Dinglasan, E., Youssef, C., Quarry, G., Aksoy,Open asset ↗Zenodo · 10.5281/zenodo.18079748pdf-raw-page:14 lines:1-49Dataset · public-6961
Kinya Akashi http://orcid.org/0000-0002-9991-5766
Data availability statement
The root images of wheat N61 and MSD417 are deposited in the Zenodo data repository under https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.18080159 and https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.18079748, respectively. The microscopic images of
coleorhiza are deposited under https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.18091131. The other original contributions presented
in the study are included in the article and/or supplementary material.
References
Alahmad, S., El Hassouni, K., Bassi, F. M., Dinglasan, E., Youssef, C., Quarry, G., Aksoy, A., Mazzucotelli, E., Juhász, A.,
Able, J. A., Christopher, J., Voss-Fels, K. P., & Hickey, L. T. (2019). A majOpen asset ↗Zenodo · 10.5281/zenodo.18091131pdf-raw-page:14 lines:1-49Plant phenotyping relevance matchCrossref · OpenAlex · checked 14 Sept 2026
Multispectral / hyperspectralWhole plant / canopy / plot / field
In recent years, hyperspectral imaging has been widely adopted in agriculture and plant phenotyping, while its application in forestry has been increasing. From that point onward, hyperspectral imaging has become a valuable tool for plant phenotyping, enabling the assessment of a broad range of plant traits. Given that seedlings of forest trees are one of the most widely used types of forest planting stock, advancements in hyperspectral technology have created new possibilities for improving seedling quality assessment. High-quality forest seedlings are important for the successful establishment of forest stands, especially after outplanting within restoration initiatives. Even though hyperspectral imaging brings numerous advantages, continued technological improvements are necessary to address its several limitations and challenges. Despite its widespread use in agricultural phenotyping, applications in forest nursery production remain limited. Therefore, this review focuses on research involving hyperspectral imaging in forest seedling production and its potential for assessing seedling quality parameters.
Low temperature stress severely restricts the cultivation and distribution of pear ( Pyrus L.) germplasms, frequently resulting in frost injury and yield reduction. To accurately evaluate the cold resistance of pear germplasm resources, this study investigates the physiological and biochemical responses of one-year-old branches to different degrees of low-temperature stress, as well as differences in the tissue structure of these pear germplasms after low-temperature stress. In this study, 122 pear germplasms were classified into high (HR), medium (MR), and low (LR) cold-tolerance categories based on their semi-lethal temperature (LT 50 ). Further analysis of pear germplasms with different levels of cold resistance revealed that, with decreasing temperature, HR germplasms exhibited smaller increases in relative electrolyte conductivity (REC) and malondialdehyde (MDA) content and higher accumulation of proline (Pro), soluble proteins (SP), soluble sugars (SS), and peroxidase activity compared with LR germplasms. In addition, the peak values of these indicators generally occurred at lower temperatures in HR germplasms. A correlation analysis and principal component analysis indicated that physiological indices, including REC, bound water/free water ratio, SS, and MDA, as well as branch anatomical traits related to xylem and cortex proportions, were closely associated with variation in LT 50 . An integrated assessment using membership function analysis produced rankings consistent with LT 50 -based clustering, supporting the reliability of the multivariate evaluation framework. Overall, this study establishes an integrated, indicator-based approach for evaluating cold resistance in pear germplasm by integrating physiological, biochemical, and anatomical characteristics. These results provide a theoretical basis and methodological reference for screening cold resistance germplasms.
Reproduction assets foundThe article's Data Availability statement links a public Zenodo deposit containing the paper's raw phenotyping data (LT50, physiological/biochemical and anatomical measurements for pear germplasms). Supplemental files also contain germplasm characteristics and LT50 comparisons, but the Zenodo raw-data deposit is the明确,Dataset · publicThe data is available at Zenodo: liu186253. (2025). liu186253/Data: raw data (Version V11). Zenodo. https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.17524773 .Open asset ↗Zenodo · 10.5281/zenodo.17524773lines:636-710Plant phenotyping relevance matchEurope PMC · Crossref · checked 5 Sept 2026
Introduction eaf area index (LAI) and leaf nitrogen accumulation (LNA) are key indicators of wheat growth and nitrogen nutritional status. However, existing prediction methods predominantly rely on single-modal information and single-output models, limiting their ability to characterize the complex structural and physiological traits of crops. This study aimed to develop a multimodal learning framework for the simultaneous and accurate prediction of wheat LAI and LNA. Methods Spectral, image, and canopy structural features were extracted from wheat canopies across different cultivars, nitrogen treatments, and growth stages. A canopy height correction-based preprocessing method was developed to improve the extraction of structural features. A Dual-Output Bayesian Neural Network (DO-BNN) was then constructed to simultaneously predict LAI and LNA. In addition, an Extreme Sample Mining (ESM) strategy and a joint loss function were introduced to strengthen the learning of complementary information across modalities and the intrinsic correlation between the two target variables. Results The DO-BNN achieved its best predictive performance when all feature modalities were fused. The coefficients of determination (R²) for LAI and LNA were 0.89 and 0.77, respectively, while the corresponding relative root mean square errors (RRMSEs) were 0.15 and 0.35. Compared with single-modal and conventional single-output approaches, the proposed method provided more accurate and robust predictions of both wheat growth parameters. Discussion The results demonstrate that integrating spectral, image, and structural information can improve the characterization of wheat canopy traits. By jointly modeling LAI and LNA, the DO-BNN effectively exploited the physiological relationship between crop growth and nitrogen accumulation. The proposed framework provides a promising approach for the high-accuracy, collaborative monitoring of wheat growth and nitrogen nutritional status.
Automated rice seed vigor classification provides a non-invasive and scalable solution for improving agricultural decision-making. This study proposed an image-based framework to compare traditional machine learning and deep learning approaches for classifying individual rice seed vigor using standard RGB images. Machine learning models were developed using hand-crafted morphological and color features, while convolutional neural networks were employed to automatically extract visual patterns related to seed quality. Both single-time-point and multi-time-point image analysis strategies were investigated. Models trained on images captured at individual growth stages were compared with a multi-time-point ensemble approach that integrated visual information across multiple developmental stages. The ensemble approach achieved superior performance, highlighting the importance of incorporating temporal growth dynamics into vigor classification. Notably, traditional machine learning models performed comparably to deep learning models when informative features were carefully engineered. To improve transparency and reliability, interpretability techniques were applied to better understand model decisions. Overall, the findings demonstrate the practical potential of data-driven, image-based seed vigor assessment.
Abstract More than 20 years have passed since forest management inventories were first implemented using discrete-return linear-mode lidar (LML) and the area-based approach (ABA). Among recent sensor innovations, single-photon lidar (SPL) stands out as a particularly promising technology for improving the cost efficiency of ABA. The main objective of this study was to assess the cost efficiency of ABA when reducing SPL point density by increasing flight altitude, thereby enabling larger area coverage. Three SPL datasets (10.1, 24.2, and 59.3 first returns/m2) were compared with two LML datasets (2.6 and 136.9 first returns/m2) and digital aerial photogrammetry (DAP) (61.3 points/m2). The analysis used 249 systematically distributed ground plots across various boreal forest types, and nonlinear models were constructed for basal area, stem density, volume, Lorey’s mean height, and dominant height. Model predictions were further validated using 530 independent plots aggregated to 47 stands. The results showed that SPL achieved model accuracies comparable to LML and consistently better than DAP. When averaging relative root mean square error (RMSE) across all biophysical attributes and forest types, SPL low-density data yielded smaller errors than low-density LML data and DAP in both cross-validation and independent stand validation. For example, in mature, highly productive forest—where more than half of the validation stands were located—the RMSE values for volume were 9.3, 8.7, 15.6, 6.4, 6.8, and 6.2% for LML low density, LML high density, DAP, SPL low density, SPL medium density, and SPL high density, respectively. Furthermore, SPL data collected at multiple flight altitudes indicate that operating above commonly reported in the literature and manufacturer-recommended heights can allow for up to a 30% reduction in flight distance while maintaining comparable model accuracy, although such gains may not translate into proportional cost reductions due to technical and atmospheric constraints limiting suitable flight conditions.
Accurate stem-volume estimation is fundamental for urban tree inventory and management, but equations developed for forest-grown trees may not be directly suitable for open-grown urban trees with altered stem form and height–diameter relationships. This study developed species-specific, model-assisted stem-volume equations for four dominant urban broad-leaved species in Beijing, China: Quercus mongolica, Sophora japonica, Ginkgo biloba, and Populus davidiana. A total of 2679 standing trees from 535 plots were used for model development and evaluation. The diameter at breast height and ground diameter were field-measured, whereas tree height was obtained as a photogrammetry-derived non-destructive measurement using a handheld tree-measurement superstation. Bivariate DBH–height models, DBH-based linked models, and ground-diameter-based chained models were fitted using weighted nonlinear least squares. Model performance was assessed using validation statistics, 10-fold cross-validation, Monte Carlo uncertainty propagation, and an independent destructive reference dataset of 55 felled trees with section-measured stem volume. Across species, the bivariate models performed best, with mean percent standard errors of 8.68%–16.24%, compared with 9.76%–20.25% for DBH-based linked models and 15.13%–28.56% for ground-diameter-based models. Destructive reference validation showed acceptable agreement within the available validation dataset, with relative RMSE values of 2.30%–5.03% and relative bias values of 0.51%–2.51%. Monte Carlo simulation indicated species-specific propagation of photogrammetric height error, with the lowest average volume fluctuation in Ginkgo biloba. These results suggest that handheld photogrammetry combined with species-specific modelling provides a practical and uncertainty-aware basis for urban stem-volume estimation. This study directly estimates stem volume rather than biomass or carbon stock, and the equations may support future biomass- and carbon-related assessments when combined with appropriate conversion parameters.
L.) is increasingly being recognized for the production of functional food ingredients and nutraceutical products with broad applications in human nutrition. Its nutrient-rich seeds are of particular interest for their nutritional profile. Moreover, its inflorescences and trichomes provide sources of nutrient-rich proteins, bioactive compounds, and functional substances for food formulations. Agronomic practices, environmental factors, and genotype considerably influence the hemp nutritional profile; thus, continued interdisciplinary research is needed to standardize quality across supply chains. X-ray micro-computed tomography (micro-CT) combined with 3D image analysis is an emerging non-destructive technique in high-resolution plant phenotyping. The aim of this work was to show the contribution of X-ray micro-CT to the quantitative characterization of the internal hemp seed structure and of the trichomes. The 3D image analysis approach used allowed us to determine many morphometric traits of the different seed parts and of the trichomes. Among them, volume ratios of the different seed parts and the density and morphological characteristics of the trichomes of two cultivars were accurately quantified. Overall, this work showed the contribution of X-ray micro-CT in 3D morphometric characterization of the hemp achene structure and trichomes. The obtained seed morphometric traits could be correlated in future applications with nutritional and/or physiological properties of different hemp varieties in order to support different aspects of the whole hemp supply chain such as the dehulling process, oil and protein recovery, seed quality evaluation, and genotype screening, to which trichome characterization could also contribute.
The architecture of the root system is a primary factor in determining rootstock performance, affecting water and nutrient uptake, biomass accumulation, and overall vigor. However, direct root phenotyping is destructive, labor-intensive, and difficult to do routinely in breeding programs. The present study investigated early root morphological variation among developed interspecific tomato rootstock candidates (Solanum lycopersicum x S. habrochaites). The ability of linear regression and machine learning models to predict root traits from easily measured plant growth parameters was assessed. Nineteen interspecific hybrid rootstock candidates, two commercial rootstocks, and one scion were grown under optimal greenhouse conditions and evaluated at 0, 10, 20, and 30 days after planting. Root length, root surface area, root diameter, and root volume were determined by digital image analysis. In contrast, genotype, plant length, and stem diameter were used as input variables. Significant genotype x sampling date effects were observed for most morphological and biomass traits, indicating dynamic changes in root and shoot development during the first 30 days of growth. The rootstock candidates RSH-17 and RSH-6 generally showed relatively higher root length, surface area, root volume, and biomass accumulation than the commercial rootstocks and scion. XGBoost and OLR were the best predictive models, with R 2 values as high as 0.95 for root length, surface area, and volume. Root diameter was predicted less accurately than root length, surface area, and volume, suggesting that it might be a more independent or less variable root trait during early development. Overall, results suggest that vigor-related traits can serve as useful proxies for estimating major root architectural traits in early-stage tomato rootstock selection. Both XGBoost and OLR performed well, suggesting that root and shoot development were highly coordinated under optimal (non-stress) conditions. Hence, predictive modeling may help prioritize promising rootstock candidates before destructive root analysis. However, more validation under stress conditions and for longer periods of development is needed to determine the greater applicability of these models.
Abstract Satellite-based prediction of grain protein concentration (GPC) in wheat typically relies on spectral observations composited over fixed calendar windows, implicitly assuming phenological synchrony across fields. This study tests whether aligning multi-source remote sensing time series to field-specific phenology-based windows improves field-level GPC prediction. We integrated Sentinel-2 multispectral imagery (32 vegetation indices, 10 spectral bands), ERA5-Land meteorological reanalysis, gSSURGO soil properties, and USGS 3DEP topographic data, and systematically compared six temporal strategies, the factorial combination of two normalization approaches (peak-relative vs.\calendar) and three resolutions (monthly, biweekly, growth stages), across 228 commercial winter wheat fields in western Kansas (2024--2025). Three ensemble tree models (Random Forest, XGBoost, LightGBM) were trained under nested cross-validation with Boruta feature selection. Peak-relative monthly normalization achieved the highest accuracy (\((R^2 = 0.304 \pm 0.051)\), RMSE \((= 1.11)\)%), explaining an additional 5.1% of variance compared with the best calendar strategy (\((R^2 = 0.253)\)). A single 30-day post-peak window (M\((+)\)1, \((\sim)\)15--45 days after maximum canopy greenness) carried more predictive information than any broader aggregation. SHAP analysis identified topsoil organic matter, SWIR-based senescence indices (NBR2, MIRBI), and grain-filling temperature as the most influential predictors. Three-class quality classification reached 47--49% accuracy (versus 33.3% by chance), indicating practical utility for early grain segregation. While demonstrated for wheat GPC, the framework is transferable to other crop traits with temporally concentrated satellite signals, particularly those tied to specific developmental stages. The results highlight phenological alignment as a generalizable strategy for trait prediction from Earth observation data.
Reproduction assets foundThe paper's data availability statement releases a de-identified field-level GPC dataset alongside a public authors' code repository (Ciampitti-Lab WheatGPCPipeline) implementing the data-acquisition, feature-engineering, and modeling pipeline. Both are paper-specific, public, and actionable.Code · publicthe figure-generation scripts is available at https://github.com/Ciampitti-Lab/Open asset ↗pdf-page:48 lines:1-55Plant phenotyping relevance matchOpenAlex · Crossref · checked 6 Sept 2026
José Daniel Gomes Andrade · Rosenilda de Souza · Henrique Duarte Vieira · Amanda Paes Leme de Mello Bruner · Laura Pereira Salomão Soares · Antônio Teixeira do Amaral Júnior
Salt stress represents one of the main challenges for global agricultural production, and digital phenotyping has emerged as a promising alternative for identifying popcorn genotypes tolerant to salt stress. This study evaluated the accumulation of plant pigments in response to salt stress in 49 popcorn genotypes (7 inbred lines and 42 F1 hybrids). Seeds were subjected to two saline conditions: without salt stress (NS—0 mM NaCl) and salt stressed (SS—100 mM NaCl). The evaluation included physiological parameters, and morphological and colorimetric attributes based on the CIELab color space were analyzed using the GroundEye® system. Additionally, the salt stress tolerance index (SSTI) was calculated for all assessed genotypes. The SSTI ranged from 0.55 to 0.83, with values closer to 1.0 indicating higher tolerance to the stressor. Among the evaluated genotypes, L472 and four of its hybrids stood out for their salinity tolerance, as they combined efficient maintenance of chlorophyll content with higher SSTI estimates. In contrast, L217 and two of its hybrids were identified as sensitive, exhibiting some of the lowest SSTI estimates and significant accumulation of anthocyanins, which, in this study, indicated a response mechanism to oxidative damage. Digital phenotyping associated with CIELab colorimetric analysis constitutes an objective tool for identifying tolerant genotypes, thereby accelerating breeding programs aimed at developing cultivars adapted to saline environments.
Abstract Forest Landscape Restoration (FLR) has become an important strategy for reversing land degradation and improving ecosystem resilience in tropical drylands. However, quantitative evaluations of restoration effectiveness remain scarce in Timor-Leste, particularly those integrating satellite-based monitoring with field observations. This study assessed vegetation recovery following reforestation activities within a 148-ha restoration site in Balak, Manatuto, Timor-Leste, using multi-temporal Sentinel-2 imagery and field-based ecological measurements. Vegetation dynamics were evaluated using the Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI) derived from Sentinel-2 images acquired in May 2022 and May 2026. NDVI differencing was applied to quantify vegetation change, while field data collected from 29 monitoring plots were used to assess seedling survival and growth performance. Pearson correlation and linear regression analyses were employed to examine relationships between vegetation growth indicators and restoration performance. The results indicated substantial vegetation improvement across the restoration area. Mean NDVI increased from 0.288 in 2022 to 0.475 in 2026, representing a 65% increase in vegetation greenness. Approximately 77.6% of the sites experienced moderate to significant vegetation recovery based on ΔNDVI analysis, whereas only 2.3% showed vegetation decline. Field assessments revealed that 62.1% of monitoring plots were classified as high-recovery sites and only 6.9% as low-recovery sites. A significant positive relationship was observed between average plant height and growth percentage ( r = 0.423, R ² = 0.179, p = 0.022), indicating that vegetation structural development was associated with restoration performance. These findings demonstrate that the AFoCO-supported reforestation programme has effectively accelerated vegetation establishment and improved ecosystem condition within a degraded tropical dryland landscape. The integration of Sentinel-2-derived NDVI indicators with field measurements provides a practical, cost-effective, and scalable framework for monitoring FLR outcomes in data-limited regions and offers valuable evidence to support restoration planning and evaluation in Timor-Leste and comparable tropical dryland environments.
João Paulo dos Santos Brito · Pedro Leonan Gonzaga de Freitas · Antônia Wiviane de Oliveira Mendes · Alessandra Jackeline Guedes de Moraes · Marta de Oliveira Barreiros
O uso de rizobactérias promotoras de crescimento de plantas (RPCPs) apresenta-se como alternativa sustentável para a agricultura, porém a predição de seus efeitos envolve múltiplas variáveis. Este trabalho teve como objetivo desenvolver um aplicativo móvel apoiado por aprendizado de máquina para análise preditiva do impacto de RPCPs no crescimento de arroz. A metodologia abrangeu quatro fases: levantamento de requisitos com especialista, análise exploratória de uma base de dados com 6.038 registros experimentais, desenvolvimento e avaliação de modelos de classificação e implementação do sistema. Foram comparados os algoritmos KNN, Random Forest e XGBoost, sendo este último selecionado por apresentar maior acurácia (0,945) e menor desvio padrão (0,010) na validação cruzada. A arquitetura Cliente-Servidor integrou um aplicativo Android em Kotlin com Jetpack Compose a uma API RESTful em FastAPI, operando em duas modalidades: não destrutiva, baseada em medições de campo, e destrutiva, com métricas de biomassa seca. Os resultados indicam que a ferramenta pode auxiliar a tomada de decisão ao reduzir a necessidade de coletas destrutivas em determinadas situações, contribuindo para práticas agrícolas mais sustentáveis.
Tomographic microscopy enables three-dimensional internal imaging but often requires expensive optical or X-ray instrumentation. Here we present an ultra-low-cost continuous-wave diffusive tomography (CWDT) system for biological samples. The system uses a smartphone microscope, a white LED coupled into an optical fiber, 3D-printed micropositioners, and a physics-based forward model optimized with machine learning. We demonstrate full-color volumetric reconstructions from a tartrazine-cleared poplar section, a scattering phantom, fungal mycelium near an Arabidopsis root, and thick poplar branch imaging with an inserted side-emitting fiber. The current results are qualitative and exploratory, but they show that scanned fiber illumination and inexpensive hardware can produce useful three-dimensional reconstruction outputs for low-cost microscopy experiments.
Reproduction assets foundThe paper's raw imaging inputs, configurations, and reconstruction outputs for Figures 2–5 are publicly deposited on Kaggle. The analysis code repository is only 'prepared for release' (no confirmed public deposit yet), so it is listed as request-only. Hardware CAD mirrors are public but are instrument designs, not theDataset · publicFigure-level raw inputs, model configurations, selected outputs, and manifests are available through the Kaggle dataset https://www.kaggle.com/datasets/alingold/continuous-wave-diffusive-tomography .Open asset ↗continuous-wave-diffusive-tomographylines:108-129Code / dataset availability confirmedOpenAlex · Crossref · checked 15 Sept 2026
LeafScans-Orchard is a curated, multi-year RGB image dataset of orchard plant leaves designed to support research in computer vision, machine learning, and plant phenotyping. The dataset comprises 9708 high-quality leaf scans acquired during collection campaigns conducted between 2015 and 2025, covering seven orchard crop species: apple, pear, sweet cherry, sour cherry, plum, peach, and apricot. In total, the dataset includes 67 cultivar labels. All samples were acquired using flatbed scanning under controlled conditions on a uniform background, ensuring high visual consistency and minimal background variability. The original scans were captured at 1200 dpi and subsequently converted into a public release format at 300 dpi, stored as lossless TIFF images to preserve morphological and textural details. Each image corresponds to a single leaf and is organized in a hierarchical directory structure by species, cultivar, and acquisition year, accompanied by image-level metadata and aggregated species–cultivar–year counts. LeafScans-Orchard is suitable for plant species classification, cultivar recognition, leaf morphology analysis, texture analysis, and general visual feature extraction. In addition to the main release, a representative subset of 300 original 1200 dpi scans is provided to support high-resolution analyses. The dataset is particularly suited for fine-grained classification, morphology-driven analysis, and methodological studies under controlled imaging conditions.
Reproduction assets foundThe paper's core asset is the LeafScans-Orchard dataset itself (9708 RGB leaf scans, 300 dpi TIFF release plus 1200 dpi subset, image-level metadata and summary counts), openly deposited on Zenodo with an explicit DOI and CC BY 4.0 license. This is a paper-specific, public, actionable phenotyping image dataset. No codeDataset · publicthe published version of the manuscript.
Funding: This research received no external funding.
Institutional Review Board Statement: Not applicable.
Informed Consent Statement: Not applicable.
Data Availability Statement: The dataset described in this article is openly available in Zenodo
as LeafScans-Orchard Dataset (v1.0.0) at https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.20187966 (accessed on
10 May 2026). The repository includes the 300 dpi image release, the 1200 dpi high-resolution subset,
image-level metadata, aggregated species–cultivar–year counts, and supporting documentation. The
complete archive of original 1200 dpi scans is retained locally by the authors but is not included in
the current pubOpen asset ↗Zenodo · 10.5281/zenodo.20187966pdf-raw-page:12 lines:1-46Code / dataset availability confirmedEurope PMC · checked 5 Sept 2026
The robust Dutch rose, also known as the Rosa hybrida is distinguished by its vibrant colors, superior product quality, and extended vase life. These rose varieties, originating from Netherlands, have proven highly successful in Indian agricultural conditions and the international export industry. The dataset consists of a total of 1,995 high resolution petal image collected during this research, encompassing petal color categories, such as red, yellow, white, pink, purple, orange, bi-color, and multi-color, as well as health statuses including fresh, dry, and diseased petals. The primary purpose of this dataset is to support machine learning activities in agriculture and specifically for tasks such as automatic petal health evaluation and rose variety categorization. Although the rose flower is scientifically rich and has a wide range of industrial uses, it has not been given much attention in machine learning, especially when compared to other plant-based datasets. This study adds to the accuracy of quality assessment through the use of modern computer vision and machine learning methods, thus helping the agriculture sector, rose-based edible product making, and flavor development industries.
Reproduction assets foundThe paper's own rose petal image dataset is publicly deposited on Mendeley Data, and the authors' validation/metadata scripts are publicly available on GitHub. Both are paper-specific, public, and actionable.Dataset · publicThe RoseVisuals dataset is publicly available on Mendeley Data at Direct URL to data: https://data.mendeley.com/datasets/f44jwtbfjg/5. Data Identification Number: 10.17632/f44jwtbfjg.5. Repository Name: RoseVisuals.Open asset ↗Mendeley Data · 10.17632/f44jwtbfjg.5html-lines:246-284Code · publicThe RoseVisuals codebase, comprising all validation scripts, is publicly available on GitHub Repository at https://github.com/Arya-S14/RoseVisuals-Validation-Doc.Open asset ↗GitHubhtml-lines:246-284Plant phenotyping relevance matchCrossref · checked 15 Sept 2026
Lara Amaral-Garcia · Carlos A Ordóñez-Parra · Kayna Agostini · Luiz G Barbosa-Dias · Alessandra Fidelis · Pietro K Maruyama · Natália F Medeiros · Norma Senna · Davi R Rossatto · Pablo H A Melo · Dayana F Abdalla · Ludmilla M S Aguiar · Viviane O Almeida · Maria Júlia Oliveira Alves · Marsal D Amorim · Lidyanne Y S Aona · André J Arruda · André D Azevedo Neto · Caio S Ballarin · Milton Barbosa · Ricardo L L Berbara · Eduardo Van den Berg · Pedro Bergamo Bergamo · Paulo N Bernardino · Aline B Bombo · Cleusa Bona · Renan Borgiani · Denilson R V Branco · Adriano A Brito-Darosci · Maria G G Camargo · Liliane S Camargos · Mariana L Campagnoli · Bruna H Campos · João C F Cardoso · Marcos B Carlucci · João V P Carreri · Isabella F Carvalho · Vanessa Carvalho · Mário G B Cava · Gregório Ceccantini · Constance Chassagne · Ana Luisa A Chaves · Marco A Chiminazzo · Alexander V Christianini · Marcus V Cianciaruso · Rosane G Collevatti · Helder N Consolaro · Grênivel M Costa · Bruno B Cozin · Claudineia P Cruz · Luís F Daibes · Mariana Dairel · Andra C Dalbeto · Gabriella Damasceno · Vinicius L Dantas · Roberta L C Dayrell · Gabriela Dezotti · Luiz Eduardo Dias · Ugo Mendes Diniz · Sara Stefani Domingos · Beatriz S dos Santos · Edson Ferreira Duarte · Giselda Durigan · Diego Fernando Escobar · Renato D'Elia Feliciano · Geraldo W Fernandes · Bruno H S Ferreira · Heleno D Ferreira · Maurílio A Figueiredo · Hudson G V Fontenele · Augusto C Franco · Camila T R Freire · Letícia C Garcia · Raquel Gasparini · Irene Gélvez-Zúñiga · Ingrid N Gomes · Lhoraynne P Gomes · Marina Efigenia Gonçalves · Maria Tereza Grombone-Guaratini · Murilo M Guimarães · Alessandro Dias Halfeld · Marina Hirota · Laís L Jacconi · Raissa I L Jardim · João Carlos F Melo Júnior · Vera L G Klein · Rosana Marta Kolb · Alessandra R Kozovits · Soizig Le Stradic · Priscilla de Paula Loiola · Sabrina Lopes · Renata A Maia · Leandro Maracahipes · Vanessa Mariano · Rafaela C Marinho · Aline R Martins · Amanda Eburneo Martins · Gustavo Martins Mattos · Nayara M J Melo · Clesnan Mendes-Rodrigues · Maria Cristina T. B. Messias · Pablo B Meyer · Heloisa S Miranda · Moemy G Moraes · L Patricia C. Morellato · Maria I C Moreno · Gabriel S T Motta · Diego R Nascimento · Andreza V Neri · Eduardo Nery · Anselmo Nogueira · Gabrelle R Novello · Paulo E Oliveira · Rafael S Oliveira · Carolina S Oliveira · Dario C Paiva · Eduardo Gusmão Pereira · Luis Perugini · Simon Pierce · Natashi A L Pilon · Luiz Felipe S Pinheiro · Vânia R Pivello · Marco A Pizo · Carlos H B Prado · Luana S Prochazka · Javier G Puntieri · André Rech · Jessica N Reis · Henrique C Rennó · Jonathan W F Ribeiro · Cassy Anne Rodrigues · Bruno L Rosa · Rayete Sary-Eldin G. Rosa · Diana S Sampaio · Julio Cesar Santiago · Núbia S C Santos · Camila S Santos · Karine M Santos · Marina C Scalon · Cibele C Silva · Larissa G F Silva · Fernanda Vasconcelos Barros · Mateus C Silva · Natalia C Soares · João Paulo Souza · Camila S Souza · Roberta P Souza · Bethina Stein · Lucas B S Tameirão · Aristônio Magalhães Teles · Francismeire J Telles · Elisa Thébault · Renata Trevizan · Betânia C Vargas · Thais Vasconcelos · Gabriel R Vedovello · Maria das Dores M. Veloso · Geane C E Viegas · Kamilla Ingred Castelan Vieira · Gabriela R Vilela · Marina Wolowski · Vagner Zanzarini · Heloiza L Zirondi · Talita Marques Zupo · Daniel Negreiros · Fernando A O Silveira
Field / plotLeafRootWhole plant / canopy / plot / fieldAnnotation / quality control
Abstract Background Trait-based ecology has become central for understanding plant form, function and ecosystem processes, but progress has been hampered by biased representation in trait databases. As such, global trait syntheses remain strongly biased towards temperate forest biomes. Tropical savannas are the most extensive, biodiverse and disturbance-driven ecosystems worldwide, yet are poorly represented in functional trait databases, limiting ecological inference and applied decision-making. Scope Here, we introduce the Cerrado Plant Traits (CPT), an open-access initiative compiling and standardising plant functional trait data for the Brazilian Cerrado, the world’s most biodiverse tropical savanna. CPT integrates trait information for all major plant organs (whole-plant, root, shoot, leaf, flower, fruit and seed) across vegetation types in the Cerrado, drawing on a collaborative and inclusive research network. The current version of CPT compiles data from 148 datasets, totalling 113,859 curated trait records for 2,134 taxonomically verified species across 150 families. Trait records span pristine, degraded and restored environments and capture both interspecific and intraspecific variation. Whole-plant and leaf traits dominate the current dataset, while belowground and reproductive traits remain comparatively underrepresented, highlighting key priorities for future research. Conclusions By substantially increasing the representation of savanna species in global trait repositories, CPT enables tests of ecological hypotheses across multiple levels of organization, analyses of trait–environment relationships across fire, soil and climatic gradients, and robust comparisons across forest–savanna transitions. Beyond its scientific value, CPT provides a practical, standardised resource to support conservation planning, restoration programs and evidence-based policy in a biodiversity hotspot facing accelerating land-use and climate pressures.
Chlorophyll content (represented by the Soil and Plant Analyzer Development (SPAD) value) and leaf moisture content (LMC) are two key physiological phenotypic traits during wheat growth, and their variations among different wheat varieties reflect crop growth, stress response, and breeding evaluation. Simultaneous identification of wheat varieties and prediction of SPAD and LMC are therefore important for precision crop monitoring. In this study, hyperspectral imaging was employed to acquire leaf spectral information from four wheat varieties. After spectral preprocessing and outlier screening, 684 valid samples were retained for model development and evaluation. Single-task and multi-task models were constructed for wheat variety classification, SPAD prediction, and LMC prediction using support vector machine (SVM), partial least squares (PLS), convolutional neural network (CNN), and multi-task CNN (MLT-CNN) algorithms. In the MLT-CNN, a shared one-dimensional spectral feature extraction module and three task-specific branches were designed, and equal weight strategy (EWS), adjustable regularization weighted strategy (ARWS), and uncertainty-based weighted strategy (UWS) were compared. The best single-task models achieved a test-set classification accuracy of 0.75, with correlation coefficients (r) of 0.83 for SPAD and 0.84 for LMC. The MLT-CNN with EWS achieved balanced test-set performance across the three tasks, with a classification accuracy of 0.69, an r value of 0.84 for SPAD, and an r value of 0.81 for LMC. Shapley additive explanations (SHAP)-based visualization was further performed for both single-task CNNs and MLT-CNN task branches to identify important wavelengths and interpret shared and task-specific spectral contributions. These results indicate that hyperspectral imaging combined with multi-task learning provides a feasible and interpretable spectroscopic strategy for integrated wheat leaf phenotyping.
Abstract Hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) is a potent reactive oxygen species that plays a crucial role as a versatile signaling molecule for cellular function and vitality. Recent experimental evidence indicates that H2O2 affects cell-to-cell communication through plasmodesmata, tiny cytoplasmic nanopores connecting adjacent plant cells. H2O2-dependent systemic signaling has also been reported to involve plasmodesmal function in some contexts, although the dominant routes and messengers underlying rapid long-distance signaling remain under active debate. Nevertheless, direct monitoring of redox dynamics at plasmodesmata in live tissues has remained challenging. In this study, we developed a plasmodesmata-localized HyPer7 (Pd-HyPer7) reporter to investigate H2O2 dynamics at plasmodesmata in response to exogenous redox stressors and plant stresses, including cold and mechanical wounding. Pd-HyPer7 showed response characteristics that differed from the HyPer7 reporters localized to the cytosol, plasma membrane, and chloroplasts under the conditions tested, indicating that redox responses at plasmodesmata are distinguishable from these compartments. Notably, during mechanical wounding, both the cytosol and plasmodesmata showed transient redox responses with broadly similar temporal profiles in local tissues. In systemic tissues, however, the responses were temporally separated, with plasmodesmal oxidation peaking well after the cytosolic response. This timing relationship is consistent with plasmodesmata acting downstream of early systemic wound signaling, rather than simply mirroring cytosolic redox dynamics. Together, our results establish Pd-HyPer7 as a tool for monitoring plasmodesmal redox dynamics and support a model in which plasmodesmata participate in spatially and temporally regulated redox responses during plant stress.
Cabral A, Couvreur TL, Sauquet H, Petrocelli I, Rodrigues-Vaz C, Lozinguez A, Xu W, Orellana-Vera G, Onstein RE.
FruitSeed / grainFruit / seed / panicle traits
Abstract Functional traits are critical for understanding species interactions within ecosystems and their responses to environmental changes. Yet, traits related to fruits and seeds are still underrepresented, especially in tropical ecosystems where mutualisms between fruits and fruit-eating animals are prominent. Here, we introduce AnnonFruitTraits 1.0, a comprehensive dataset of 34,772 records encompassing 26 frugivory-related traits for 2,266 species (ca. 90% of total species) of the pantropical plant family Annonaceae (Magnoliales). This dataset includes trait definitions and their significance for frugivory, as well as a description of our workflow from data acquisition to visualization. To facilitate data accessibility and reproducibility, we provide an accompanying R package (AnnonTraits) that enables users to explore, summarise, and visualise the dataset. By assessing species and trait coverage across genera and regions, we identified major data gaps in the Asia-Pacific region and in several Annonaceae genera (e.g., Artabotrys , Miliusa , Orophea, Polyalthia , and Uvaria ). Our findings show the importance of expanding trait data collection and taxonomic efforts, particularly in underrepresented regions and lineages. AnnonFruitTraits is a valuable resource for advancing research on seed dispersal, plant–animal interactions, and tropical forest conservation.
We evaluated a multi-output neural network framework for jointly analyzing maize grain yield (GY) and root lodging percentage (LP) using above-ground morphological traits measured under defined environmental conditions. To address model robustness, the multi-output neural network was compared with linear regression, elastic net, random forest, and XGBoost using repeated five-fold cross-validation, an 80/20 holdout split, and independent year-wise validation. Under repeated cross-validation, XGBoost provided the strongest average predictive performance for both traits, with R2 values of 0.57 for GY and 0.67 for LP. The multi-output neural network showed moderate performance, with R2 values of 0.49 for GY and 0.57 for LP. Final holdout performance for the neural network for GY and LP was R2 = 0.64 and R2 = 0.92, respectively. Year-wise validation showed weak temporal transferability because the two seasons differed not only in environmental conditions, but also in lodging mechanism. Repeated permutation importance identified ear width (EW), kernel row number (RNE), thousand kernel mass (KM1000), and kernel number per ear (KNE) as important predictors of GY, while LP prediction was most strongly associated with internode major diameter (IDmajor), ear length (EL), and the number of green leaves (NGL). Across both permutation importance and SHAP, only RNE and NGL were consistently shared between GY and LP. Supplementary ALE diagnostics indicated that RNE showed increasing model-estimated effects for both predicted GY and LP, whereas NGL showed a positive association with predicted GY but a decreasing or nonlinear association with predicted LP. These results show that joint modeling can support exploratory trait interpretation, but the predictive relationships remain environment-specific and should not be interpreted as causal or broadly transferable without further multi-environment validation.
Accurate apple origin identification and non-destructive internal quality evaluation are important for fruit traceability, quality grading, and post-harvest management. Unlike previous studies mainly focusing on origin classification, this study established a dual-task near-infrared spectroscopy framework integrating geographical origin classification and soluble solid content (SSC, °Brix) prediction for Fuji apples. Samples were collected from three representative production regions in China: Alar in Xinjiang, Yantai in Shandong, and Luochuan in Shaanxi. Near-infrared diffuse reflectance spectra were acquired from 375 apples, generating 3000 spectral samples for origin classification and 750 SSC-calibrated samples for sugar content prediction. For classification, six deep learning models were evaluated using standardized full-spectrum input without chemometric spectral preprocessing, and the Transformer achieved the best performance, with a test accuracy of 96.22%. For SSC regression, spectra were preprocessed using standard normal variate and Savitzky-Golay filtering. The DNN model achieved the best prediction performance, with MAE = 0.5958 °Brix, RMSE = 0.7333 °Brix, R 2 = 0.8646, and Pearson r = 0.9338. These results indicate that near-infrared spectroscopy combined with deep learning can support both Fuji apple origin authentication and non-destructive local tissue SSC assessment.
Introduction Riparian vegetation is critical to river stability, but quantity–structure risk under geomorphic constraints remains poorly quantified. Methods Using the Chishui River Basin as a case study, this study combined quarterly field surveys from 25 riparian transects with high-resolution unmanned aerial vehicle imagery to develop an integrated framework for identifying coupled fluctuations in vegetation quantity and community structure and their spatiotemporal risk patterns. Results A total of 263 plant species from 185 genera and 65 families were recorded. The results showed that riparian vegetation in the Chishui River exhibited pronounced spatial fluctuation at the basin scale. Biomass peaked upstream in autumn at 425 g m -2 and in the middle–lower reaches in summer at 522 g m -2 , but remained below 400 g m -2 downstream year-round. UAV-derived FVC mean and Texture std were significantly correlated with field-based vegetation-quantity and community-structure indicators, respectively (R 2 = 0.72, p 2 = 0.48, p RI values generally above 0.45, and maximum RI values reached 0.793 and 0.788 in two typical high- RI sections associated with observed human activity and possible engineering-related disturbance. Discussion This integrated framework provides a quantitative basis for cross-scale vegetation monitoring and ecological restoration prioritization in complex basins.
Phytophthora cinnamomi is considered as one of the world's worst plant pathogens, infecting about 5,000 plant species including those of agricultural and environmental significance. Disease management is largely dependent on chemical control, particularly synthetic fungicides such as phosphonic acid-based fungicides, e.g., phosphite/potassium phosphonate. While phosphonic-acid-based fungicides have been highly effective for more than 40 years, their prolonged use has led to the development of tolerance and decreased sensitivity in P. cinnamomi . Novel control agents that are effective but environmentally sustainable are therefore urgently needed. RNA-based biopesticides, which use exogenously applied double-stranded RNA (dsRNA) specific to the target pest or pathogen to avoid off-target effects on other organisms in the environment including beneficials, have emerged as a potential novel disease management strategy against P. cinnamomi . Due to the limited availability of bioassays to study the efficacy of this novel control agent against P. cinnamomi , we developed water-based lupin and pineapple bioassays using readily available plastic cups and glassware with mycelial plugs as inoculum. Infection rate was assessed 3 to 7 days post-inoculation (dpi) for lupin and 7 to 14 dpi for pineapple by measuring root lesion length and rating root rot. Potassium phosphonate (Agri Fos 600) and dsRNA were tested as example control agents, with dsRNA uptake tested via northern blotting. The bioassays were found suitable for P. cinnamomi pathogenicity assays, with one mycelial plug an effective inoculum; fungicide sensitivity testing, with doses as low as 0.45 g L -1 Agri Fos® 600 providing protection; and exogenous dsRNA studies targeting root pathogens, with dsRNA able to be taken up by germinating lupin seeds. Overall, the assays are soil-free and thus overcome dsRNA stability issues in the soil and enable the collection of intact clean roots for molecular analyses. Furthermore, the bioassays are non-destructive, allowing root lesion symptoms to be visually monitored and repeatedly measured across different timepoints.
Determining elemental concentrations in plant tissues is essential for physiological studies on abiotic stress. However, high-throughput routine analysis of light elements (sodium to calcium) in plants is challenging due to the need for complete sample dissolution and expensive and time-consuming inductively coupled plasma-mass-spectrometry (ICP-MS). Ion chromatography and ion-selective electrodes are low-cost methods but suffer from major drawbacks, including limited throughput and time-consuming sample preparation. This study reports on a new methodology for quantitative analysis of light elements in plants using monochromatic X-ray fluorescence (MXRF) analysis. We quantitatively assessed sodium and potassium uptake in Arabidopsis thaliana, Oryza sativa and Lactuca sativa in salinity treatments. The new method provides reliable results from samples as small as 1 mg, making it suitable for analysis at the seedling stage. This is enabled by the high sensitivity of the system and optimized sample preparation that ensures sufficient signal even at low sample masses. We tested the accuracy and precision of the technique for other light elements to demonstrate its broad applicability. The results show that the method delivers rapid, non-destructive, and extraction-free light element analysis on small samples highly correlating with ICP-MS. The monochromatic XRF method provides accurate measurements and reproducible results for studying salinity tolerance ideally suited for investigating elemental composition of early plant developmental stages, offering new possibilities for research into early stimuli responses.
Continuous monitoring of vineyard dynamics is essential for optimizing viticultural practices and assessing plant health. While the seasonal behaviors of satellite-derived vegetation indices are widely studied, robust parametric modeling of these temporal trends remains underexplored. Building upon initial clues derived from Italian vineyards, this study proposes a novel analytical framework based on the consistent parabolic temporal signature of optical and Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR) indices. Focusing on the elevated Trinity Canyon Vineyards in Armenia, we model the yearly evolution and temporal aggregations of these indices using a parabolic fitting approach. Our results suggest that the parabola vertex, which we hypothesize corresponds to the absolute maximum of vegetative activity, remains remarkably stable across diverse vine types, satellite orbits, and years. While this stable behavior suggests an underlying phenological or structural consistency, distinct exceptions to this trend have also been identified and considered. Furthermore, to bridge the gap between remote sensing observables and agronomic traits, we investigated the relationship between the fitted parabolic parameters and the Winkler index, which is used here as an estimator of above-ground biomass (AGB). By correlating the vegetation indices’ temporal dynamics with biomass growth and by isolating specific anomalies driven by environmental or anthropogenic factors, this work offers a basis for a predictive methodology that enables tracking vineyard structural development.
The Vines-DB dataset contains 1,218 original high-resolution RGB images of seven ornamental vine species collected under field conditions at the Utah Agricultural Experiment Station's Greenville Research Farm in Logan, Utah, USA. The dataset was generated from 168 individual vine plants that were transplanted in 2022 and photographed repeatedly across multiple months during the 2023 and 2024 growing seasons (July-October). Images were captured with an iPhone 16 Pro equipped with a 48 MP camera between 10:00 AM and 12:00 PM under daylight. Vines were grown on 1.2m x 2.4m trellises and photographed from a distance of 1m against black or white Styrofoam backdrops to improve contrast and reduce background noise. The dataset includes Akebia quinata, Campsis radicans, Hydrangea anomala petiolaris, Lonicera x heckrottii, Campsis x tagliabuana 'Madame Galen', Parthenocissus quinquefolia, and Wisteria floribunda. All original images were manually annotated in Roboflow by trained annotators to produce polygon-based instance segmentation masks for eight classes, including seven species and background. After preprocessing and data augmentation, the working dataset was expanded to 2,307 images for model development and evaluation. The augmented dataset was divided into 2,019 training images, 192 validation images, and 96 test images using stratified sampling to maintain balanced representation. Vines-DB supports the development and evaluation of deep learning models for multi-class instance segmentation in precision horticulture and urban ecology. The dataset enables applications such as automated canopy cover estimation, species identification, and scalable field phenotyping. In addition, repeated monthly imaging of the plants captures temporal variation in canopy development and plant appearance, increasing the dataset's utility for segmentation benchmarking under realistic field conditions.
Reproduction assets foundThe paper's core asset is the Vines-DB RGB image dataset with instance segmentation annotations, publicly deposited on OSF with an explicit DOI and URL matching an allowed URL.Dataset · publicData accessibility Repository name: Vines-DB
Data identification number: 10.17605/OSF.IO/YJHCK
Direct URL to data: https://osf.io/yjhck/overviewOpen asset ↗OSF · 10.17605/OSF.IO/YJHCKpdf-page:2 lines:1-49Code / dataset availability confirmedEurope PMC · Crossref · checked 5 Sept 2026
An understanding of spike shape will be of great benefit for improving wheat yields. Traditional manual measurements of spike traits are slow and prone to human error, preventing large-scale phenotyping. Employing imaging techniques will allow researchers to measure multiple morphometric parameters simultaneously. While 2D imaging provides a rapid screening method, 3D imaging offer a more comprehensive understanding of spike shape, revealing complex external structures. This study addresses the challenge of developing a high-resolution 3D surface-scanning pipeline to accurately quantify wheat spike morphology across diverse genotypes. Using a 3D surface-scanner, sharp point clouds of individual spikes were reconstructed and automatically aligned and analysed to extract key morphological features including spike length, volume, and cross-sectional area profile. New shape descriptors based on cross-sectional area profiles, local extremes, statistical curve fitting, segmentation of spikes into zones of aborted spikelets, base and apical segments as well as the extraction of spike/spikelets branching and endpoints of components were introduced to capture detailed structural variation between genotypes. Correlations between the 3D-derived traits and traditional metrics such as spike weight, spikelet number and seed weight confirmed the biological relevance of the extracted parameters. The method distinguished morphological differences among twelve wheat genotypes, revealing distinct shape types such as long, short, compact, and awned spikes. By combining precise 3D imaging with computational analysis, this approach provides a non-destructive framework for spike phenotyping. These findings demonstrate that 3D surface-scanning can deliver accurate and reproducible measurements of wheat spike architecture, offering new opportunities for linking morphology with genetics and yield potential in modern breeding programs.
Reproduction assets foundThe paper's Data Availability and Code Availability sections point to the authors' public GitHub repository containing sample 3D spike data and the analysis code for the wheat spike morphology pipeline.Code · publicCode Availability
The codes are available at the following link: https://github.com/LatifaGreche/3D-WheatSpikeMorphologyExtractionOpen asset ↗LatifaGreche/3D-WheatSpikeMorphologyExtractionlines:316-410Plant phenotyping relevance matchEurope PMC · checked 5 Sept 2026
TissuePhysiological trait estimationStress response / toleranceWater status / transpiration
Drought-driven plant mortality is closely linked to xylem embolism. Building useful, reliable datasets of xylem vulnerability to embolism requires methods that are practical, fast, accurate, widely accessible and robust across growth forms. We tested and advanced the pneumatic method for constructing xylem vulnerability curves (VCs) across contrasting growth forms to improve inference of drought resilience. Using an automated pneumatron, VCs were constructed for three species representing a small woody shrub (Erica monsoniana), a large woody shrub (Protea repens), and a reed-like graminoid (Cannomois congesta). For graminoid culms, we compared three approaches for estimating xylem water potential (Ψ) and developed a non-invasive method that couples repeated relative water content (RWC) measurements with Ψ-RWC models to obtain high-temporal Ψ estimates. Percent air discharged (PAD)-Ψ relationships were well captured by sigmoid functions. Cannomois congesta showed the steepest curves and the least negative thresholds overall (P 50 = -2.91 ± 0.09 MPa), indicating early, rapid embolism progression, whereas Erica monsoniana was most resistant (P 12 = -5.91 ± 0.74 MPa; P 50 = -6.78 ± 0.76 MPa) with higher variability; Protea repens was intermediate. P 50 estimates were the most comparable with prior optical, pneumatic and centrifuge estimates, whereas P 12 and P 88 showed greater divergence. Ψ TLP was less variable between species, but ranked similarly (-1.49 ± 0.03, -1.53 ± 0.03, -1.59 ± 0.02 MPa for C. congesta, P. repens, and E. monsoniana, respectively). Such variation yielded systematically wider hydraulic safety margins for the three species. By demonstrating that the pneumatic method can generate reliable vulnerability curves across small and large woody shrubs and graminoids, this study broadens the comparative evaluation of xylem vulnerability across growth forms with contrasting anatomy. A practical advance is the use of repeated RWC measurements paired with Ψ-RWC relationships to improve Ψ resolution in graminoid culms while minimizing disturbance.
Real-time monitoring of H 2 O 2 in plant tissues is useful for evaluating oxidative changes during postharvest storage, but direct on-site detection in vegetables remains difficult because most assays still require tissue disruption and laboratory instruments. In this study, a dual-signal microneedle biosensor was developed by integrating polydopamine-coated Fe/Zr-MOF nanozyme (PDA@Fe/Zr-MOF) into a gelatin/sodium alginate microneedle patch for H 2 O 2 detection in lettuce. The polydopamine coating improved the peroxidase-like response of Fe/Zr-MOF through •OH generation and also contributed to photothermal conversion under 808 nm near-infrared (NIR) irradiation. After contact with lettuce leaves, the microneedles extracted interstitial fluid and allowed H 2 O 2 -triggered TMB oxidation to be read by both colorimetric imaging and thermal imaging. The two outputs were not independent recognition mechanisms, but they provided mutually supportive information and helped reduce the influence of sample color and environmental fluctuations. The sensor achieved detection limits of 0.42 μM for the colorimetric mode and 0.34 μM for the photothermal mode. During 15 days of storage at 4°C, the sensor tracked H 2 O 2 accumulation in lettuce and showed a clear relationship with spoilage progression. These results indicate that PDA@Fe/Zr-MOF-based microneedle sensing is a feasible approach for monitoring oxidative freshness changes in postharvest vegetables.
Rapid and non-destructive estimation of maize (Zea mays L.) leaf flavonoid (Flav) content is important for crop stress monitoring and precision agriculture. This study aimed to improve Flav estimation by integrating unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV)-based multispectral data, texture features, and phenological parameters across six key growth stages in the Guanzhong Plain, China. Maize Flav content was measured in situ using a Dualex Scientific+ meter, while canopy reflectance was acquired with a DJI M300 RTK UAV equipped with an MS600 Pro multispectral camera. A comprehensive feature set, including spectral bands, vegetation indices, texture features, texture indices, and logistic curve-derived phenological parameters, was constructed. Three feature selection methods, competitive adaptive reweighted sampling (CARS), the genetic algorithm (GA), and the successive projections algorithm (SPA), together with three regression models, partial least squares regression (PLSR), extreme gradient boosting (XGBoost), and convolutional neural network (CNN), were evaluated for Flav estimation. The results showed that integrating spectral, texture, and phenological information significantly improved model performance compared with spectral variables alone. CNN and XGBoost generally outperformed PLSR. Across the six growth stages, the stage-specific optimal models achieved coefficient of determination (R2) values ranging from 0.7749 to 0.8686 and residual prediction deviation (RPD) values ranging from 2.0046 to 2.6019, indicating high to outstanding predictive ability. The highest accuracy was obtained at R3 using the CARS-XII-CNN model, with R2 = 0.8686, root mean square error of validation (RMSEV) = 0.0382, and RPD = 2.6019. Texture features and phenological metrics, especially the start of season derived from the normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI_SOS) and the rate of senescence derived from the enhanced vegetation index (EVI_ROS), contributed substantially to model accuracy. In addition, maize Flav showed a unimodal response to nitrogen supply, with moderate nitrogen levels associated with higher Flav content. This study demonstrates the potential of UAV-based multisource feature integration and machine learning for accurate maize Flav estimation, and provides a useful framework for digital crop phenotyping and stress diagnosis.
Lonicera maackii is a valuable medicinal shrub whose propagation is hindered by deep seed dormancy. Research on L. maackii seeds has been limited to dormancy classification and release methods, with little attention given to biochemical indices, systematic omics, or molecular mechanisms. In this study, we showed that seed dormancy in L. maackii can be effectively released through cold stratification treatment. Furthermore, using hyperspectral imaging technology, we established a non-destructive method for identifying the dormancy status of L. maackii seeds. Ultrastructural observations revealed that dormancy release involved lipid droplet degradation and nucleolar enlargement, indicative of activated metabolism. Biochemical indices showed that dormancy-released seeds exhibit enhanced metabolic activity. In addition, target hormones contents indicated a decline in abscisic acid (ABA) and a rise in gibberellic acid (GA) upon dormancy termination in this species. Moreover, transcriptomic analyses demonstrated that differentially expressed genes (DEGs) were primarily enriched in plant hormone signal transduction pathways, among which we identified LmABI5 as a gene markedly induced during dormancy compared to its expression upon dormancy release. Subsequently, subcellular localization analysis revealed that LmABI5 is localized in the nucleus. To further investigate its biological function, we generated and selected LmABI5-overexpressing (LmABI5-OE) transgenic Arabidopsis lines. Germination assays revealed that the seeds of LmABI5-OE plants exhibited significantly stronger dormancy than those of the wild-type (WT). This study deepens our understanding of regulatory network and provides a theoretical foundation for molecular breeding strategies in L. maackii.
Main conclusion A novel and efficient method was developed to accurately measure thickness in 3D of many cells from a confocal stack, as well as to track changes in cell thickness overtime. Plant cells and organs are three-dimensional objects with a certain thickness. Among basic geometric parameters (length, width, depth/thickness), cell thickness is less accurately and comprehensively measured, probably because it cannot be directly seen. The current methods of cell thickness quantification have some limitations, such as measuring only from a cross-section, not accounting for the directionality of biological thickness, or not offering a way to track changes in thickness of individual cells over time. This research is an attempt to bridge the gap, by making the quantification of thickness and tracking its changes in many cells easier and more accurate. We devised a novel method to efficiently measure average cell thickness in 3D from cells imaged with confocal microscopy, the most popular technique to image live samples over many days. The method, in combination with the popular software MorphoGraphX, also allows accurate and efficient tracking of changes in thickness between different time points. We tested the method on various organs of the model plant Arabidopsis thaliana such as the shoot apical meristem, the hypocotyl, the cotyledon, and the sepal. We demonstrated that this new method can reliably measure the thickness of hundreds of cells at once in a short amount of time to reveal new biological insights. We believe this would be a useful tool for plant researchers to accurately characterize this hidden morphological dimension.
The number of petals in an inflorescence is an important phenotypic indicator for quality evaluation and cultivar identification of cut chrysanthemums ( Chrysanthemum morifolium Ramat.). Current manual measurement methods are time-consuming, error-prone, and poorly suited to the complex geometry of chrysanthemum flowers, which limits their utility for large-scale phenotyping and breeding programs. Although image-based phenotyping has advanced rapidly, automated and reliable methods for petal counting in densely packed or partially obscured inflorescences remain underdeveloped. Here, we developed a deep learning-based framework for automatic extraction of petal number in cut chrysanthemums. Images from multiple varieties were collected to construct a representative dataset, and petal density maps were generated through manual annotation with Gaussian kernel function. We employed a Congested Scene Recognition Network (CSRNet) enhanced with a Squeeze-and-Excitation (SE) channel attention mechanism (SE-CSRNet) for petal density estimation. Spearman correlation analysis revealed strong agreement between visible and actual petal counts (Spearman’s r=0.953, p<0.0001). Compared with the original CSRNet, SE-CSRNet reduced mean absolute error (MAE) and root mean squared error (RMSE) by 5.2% and 7.4%, respectively. Further optimization using regression fitting revealed that random forest achieved the best performance (MAE = 4.24, RMSE = 5.06, R 2 = 0.967), indicating reliable stability and satisfactory generalization under the conditions evaluated in this work. Application of the optimized model to two cut chrysanthemum varieties confirmed its practicality by successfully detecting reductions in petal number under high-temperature stress. Our results demonstrate that integrating dataset construction, deep learning–based density estimation, and machine learning optimization enables efficient and accurate prediction of petal number in cut chrysanthemums.
Reproduction assets foundThe article states that some data (the chrysanthemum petal-counting dataset and related materials) will be available at the authors' public GitHub repository (qwsdfgz/petalscount), with other data available from the corresponding author upon reasonable request. The repository URL is explicitly provided by the authors,但Dataset · publicnctional components of bud-leaves and flowers in edible chrysanthemum (Chrysanthemum morifolium Ramat)
Horticulturae 11 5 2025 448
10.3390/horticulturae11050448
Appendix A
Supplementary data
The following is the Supplementary data to this article.
Multimedia component 1
Data availability
Some data will be available at this URL: https://github.com/qwsdfgz/petalscount . Other data are openly available from the corresponding author upon reasonable request.
Appendix A
Supplementary data to this article can be found online at https://doi.org/10.1016/j.plaphe.2026.100238 .Open asset ↗qwsdfgz/petalscountlines:602-636Plant phenotyping relevance matchEurope PMC · checked 5 Sept 2026
Published12 Jun 2026Advanced science (Weinheim, Baden-Wurttemberg, Germany)Cited by 0 · OpenAlex ↗
Wang L, Dai J, Zhao T, Zhao S, Wu H, Pan J, Hao Y, Nie K, Yu L, Zhu Y, Zhao X, Huang K, Zhang M, Zhao Y, Jiang Y, Wang S, Pan Y, Chen Y, Lin Y, Shi W, Deng Y, Han J, Li J, Long X, Wang J, Zhang Z, Han Z, Si Z, Ju L, Li J, Zhang T, Zhou J, Guan X.
CottonSeed / grainGrowth / time-series analysisGrowth / development / phenology
Seed vigor underpins uniform crop establishment, but its dynamic genetics are understudied. Combining high-resolution temporal phenotyping and genomics in upland cotton, we used the SeedRanger platform to record 17 image-based traits every 30 min over 120 h, revealing stage-specific heritability and identifying 541 seed-vigor loci. These loci show extensive pleiotropy and temporal coordination, forming a genetic network that preserves developmental continuity; 8.9% overlap regions under domestication selection, indicating concurrent optimization with fiber yield. Functional validation of FLA2, a candidate gene underlying a dynamic QTL, implicates auxin-mediated control of radicle elongation and cotyledon development. This temporal framework exposes dynamic genetic architecture and breeding targets for high-vigor crops.
Soil salinization has become a critical factor limiting global agricultural production. Characterizing the growth and developmental responses of okra to salt stress and developing efficient and accurate salt-stress phenotyping techniques can provide an important methodological reference for okra cultivation in saline lands and future multi-cultivar salt-stress phenotyping studies. Traditional manual measurement of plant phenotypic parameters suffers from low efficiency and insufficient detection accuracy, making it difficult to achieve rapid and non-destructive analysis of plant phenotypic traits under salt stress. Therefore, this study proposes a computational phenotyping parameter extraction method based on the CSP-MSG Net model. Using dual-view feature fusion, we constructed a dedicated dataset. On the basis of PointNet++-MSG, the original MLP layers were replaced with C2F modules, and the SGE attention mechanism was integrated to enhance morphological feature extraction, thereby constructing a lightweight CSP-MSG Net architecture adapted to okra seedling point clouds for semantic segmentation of okra point clouds combined with DBSCAN clustering to complete instance segmentation, phenotypic parameters including plant height, stem diameter and canopy width were further calculated. This scheme enables high-throughput data acquisition, improves measurement accuracy, effectively reduces model parameters and computational overhead, and realizes lightweight operational performance. The results show that okra seedlings can still grow with increasing salt stress concentration, while the growth rates of the three measured traits are all inhibited, indicating that high-concentration salt stress impairs the growth activity of okra seedlings. To verify the calculation accuracy of the model, the phenotypic parameters predicted by the model were compared with manually measured values. The coefficients of determination for stem diameter, canopy width and plant height of okra seedlings reached 0.96, 0.99 and 0.99, respectively. These results strongly demonstrate the excellent reliability and effectiveness of the proposed method, providing methodological support for non-destructive and accurate phenotypic detection of okra seedlings under salt stress.
Xingzhou Zhu · Jingyuan Liu · Jinru Pan · Kai Zhou
Field / plotMultispectral / hyperspectralLeafPhysiological trait estimation
Leaf nitrogen concentration (LNC) is an important indicator of Ginkgo nutritional status, but its hyperspectral estimation remains challenging because leaf spectra are high dimensional, strongly collinear, and affected by overlapping structural and biochemical signals. This study examined how spectral preprocessing, wavelength selection sequence, and regression model choice influence leaf scale Ginkgo LNC estimation, while separating simulation-assisted model development from measured sample-based prediction assessment. We assembled 717 field measured Ginkgo leaf spectra with corresponding laboratory measured LNC values and used PROSPECT-PRO simulated spectra only for wavelength screening or calibration augmentation, not as independent validation data. Three evaluation schemes were compared: measured-only analysis, simulated spectra-assisted wavelength selection followed by measured data calibration and testing, and simulated spectra-assisted wavelength selection and calibration followed by measured-only testing. The third scheme was used as the main inference framework because it retained an independent measured sample test boundary. Within this framework, multiple preprocessing methods, two wavelength selection sequences, and four regression models (PLSR, GPR, 1D-CNN, and DGP) were evaluated. MSC showed comparatively low error in the preprocessing comparison, and CARS-SPA identified a compact set of informative wavelengths concentrated mainly in the shortwave infrared region. Under the simulation-assisted calibration framework, the combination of MSC preprocessing, CARS-SPA wavelength selection, and DGP regression produced the lowest test error on the measured sample set (R2 = 0.82; RMSE = 2.07 mg g−1). These results indicate that Ginkgo LNC estimation depends on the combined choice of preprocessing method, wavelength selection strategy, and regression model, and provide a methodological reference for simulation-assisted hyperspectral modeling.
Reliable field phenotyping for terminal heat stress (THS) tolerance in chickpea is constrained by conventional late-sowing approaches that confound reproductive stress with reduced vegetative growth. We developed and validated a deflowering (DF)-based field screening method that selectively imposes heat stress during the reproductive phase while maintaining normal vegetative vigour. Early flowers were removed to synchronize flowering and delay reproduction by 10-15 days, exposing flowering and pod set to high temperatures (>33 °C). Across two seasons and contrasting genotypes, DF maintained vegetative growth but significantly reduced pollen viability, pod set, and yield, with tolerant genotypes showing markedly lower yield penalties than susceptible ones. The method effectively discriminated reproductive thermotolerance and provides a simple, low-cost, and biologically grounded phenotyping tool for chickpea breeding under warming climates.•A DF-based field method selectively imposes reproductive-stage heat stress without compromising vegetative growth.•The approach reliably distinguishes heat-tolerant and susceptible chickpea genotypes under natural field conditions.
Abstract This study investigates the accuracy of Multiple Linear Regression (MLR) and Artificial Neural Networks (ANN), specifically a hybrid Genetic Algorithm-ANN (GA-ANN), for predicting wheat yield in plant breeding. This research, conducted using 782 wheat genotypes in Rafsanjan, Iran, compares MLR and ANN methodologies. MLR, using seven traits selected via stepwise regression, achieved an R² of 0.90, the root of mean square of error (RMSE) of 14, Average absolute percentage error (MAPE) of 13.3, and Average deviation of prediction from the actual value (MAE) of 10. Key traits identified were biological weight (weight of total plant per line, WPP) and harvest index (HI). Conversely, the GA-ANN model, employing six selected traits, demonstrated superior performance with R² values of 0.94, 0.96, and 0.94 for training, testing, and combined datasets respectively. Validation metrics for the ANN model were MSE of 144.3, RMSE of 12, and MAE of 5.7. GA-ANN selected height, peduncle length, days to flowering, spike length, biological weight, and harvest index as significant predictors. The results underscore that ANN models, particularly when combined with genetic algorithms for feature selection and optimization, can improve prediction accuracy by modeling complex, non-linear relationships in agricultural data, therefore providing more precise yield prediction tools for plant breeders. This study emphasizes the need for advanced predictive techniques in achieving more accurate assessments of crop yield for sustainable agriculture.
Abstract Purpose Robotic harvesting systems are commonly evaluated in canopies treated as fixed operating environments, although kiwifruit canopy architecture is actively shaped by seasonal pruning, fruit thinning, tipping, and cane training. This study developed HarvestField, a decision-support framework for quantifying how robot-oriented canopy management affects harvesting feasibility before field operation. Methods HarvestField defines a spatial harvestability field \(\:\mathscr{H}\left(x\right)\in\:\left[\text{0,1}\right]\) as the product of reachability, visibility, clearance, and detachability sub-fields. A mass-weighted field average at fruit positions yields the Harvested Yield Index (HYI). The framework couples an L-system-based functional–structural plant model of Hayward kiwifruit with NSGA-III multi-objective optimisation over six management variables, jointly evaluating HYI, yield, and labour cost. Results Calibration against a published 12,000-fruit robotic kiwifruit harvesting benchmark produced HYI = 0.562, with an absolute deviation of 0.004 from the observed success rate of 0.558. HarvestField-optimised management increased mean HYI relative to standard management (0.642 versus 0.587). Under equal fruit counts, \(\:\mathscr{H}\)-guided thinning improved HYI by up to 0.301 compared with uniform thinning. Sobol analysis identified clearance neighbourhood radius as the dominant parameter (\(\:{S}_{T}=0.576\)). Conclusion HarvestField provides a spatially explicit and robot-specific framework for linking kiwifruit canopy management with harvesting feasibility. It supports management trade-off analysis while indicating the need for independent orchard-scale validation before deployment.
Plant height during the early growth stage of rice is a key indicator reflecting canopy establishment rate, tillering potential, and overall growth vigor, all of which critically determine final yield formation. Conventional manual measurements fail to capture high-frequency, continuous, and non-destructive monitoring of plant height dynamics, limiting the understanding of early growth vigor and its genetic mechanisms. In this study, a UAV-based LiDAR system was employed to acquire canopy point clouds of 211 rice accessions across ten time points within 40 days after transplanting. High-resolution canopy height models (CHMs) were generated, and continuous plant height trajectories H(t) were reconstructed using piecewise cubic Hermite interpolation (PCHIP). The first derivative V(t) quantified growth rate dynamics and identified the timing of maximum growth (T max ), enabling precise differentiation of early growth patterns among geno-types. Genome-wide association analysis (GWAS) using a mixed linear model (MLM, Q+K) detected 604 significant SNPs, among which 33 were stably expressed across environments. Five candidate genes were identified within ±200 kb windows, mainly encoding proteins related to cell elongation, hormone signaling, and photosynthetic metabolism. The results highlight that LiDAR-based dynamic monitoring of plant height, coupled with genomic association analysis, provides a robust framework for quantifying rice early growth vigor and elucidating its molecular basis, offering valuable guidance for breeding high-vigor “early-establishing” rice cultivars.
This study developed machine learning models to predict maize crop nitrogen content (CNC) using vegetation indices derived from UAV and satellite imagery. Several models were evaluated, with Random Forest demonstrating the best performance. The study emphasizes that combining vegetation indices enhances prediction accuracy more than using individual spectral bands. Results show reliable CNC estimation across growth stages, although predictions at early stages are less precise due to low canopy cover and soil interference. The approach allows for real-time, field-to-regional-scale nitrogen monitoring, supporting improved fertilizer management and precision agriculture decision-making.
Chlorophyll content represents a key growth indicator for maize. The traditional SPAD method, though easy to operate, is inefficient, destructive, and unsuitable for high throughput field monitoring. Unmanned Aerial Vehicle (UAV) remote sensing technology is highly efficient and detects abundant indicators, enabling large-scale SPAD measurement. In this study, 18 vegetation indices and 8 texture features were selected as the indicator system by combining prior knowledge and experimental analysis. In a two-year maize density experiment, multispectral images were collected in the full growth period. The correlations between SPAD values, multispectral indices and texture features were analyzed using Pearson correlation coefficients. Then the detection accuracies of three algorithms i.e. Random Forest (RF), Partial Least Squares Regression (PLSR), and Support Vector Regression (SVR), were compared under this indicator system. Compared with models constructed using single vegetation indices or single texture features, the estimation accuracy of the indicator system at the jointing stage was improved by 0.13 and 0.22, respectively. The results showed that SVR achieved the highest estimation accuracy among the three algorithms, with determination coefficients (R²) of 0.73, 0.77and 0.70 at the jointing, silking, and grain-filling stages, respectively. This study established a non-destructive monitoring framework for chlorophyll content during entire maize growth period based on UAV data.
Introduction: Root anatomical traits and spatial architecture play a critical role in crop water acquisition and utilization, directly impacting drought tolerance. However, comprehensive studies examining the synergistic effects of deep root configuration and cortical tissue organization under drought stress during the seedling stage remain scarce. Additionally, the underlying physiological mechanisms are not yet well understood. Methods: In this study, we utilized a high-throughput, paper-based phenotyping platform to simulate drought stress using 10% PEG. An efficient, multi-trait evaluation framework was employed to classify the 28 tested genotypes into five drought tolerance categories. Results: This approach enabled the identification of drought-tolerant cultivars "Ruichun 1," "Ningchun 11," and "Ningchun 57," as well as the drought-sensitive cultivar "Dingxi 48." Root traits, including maximum depth, convex hull area, and plant height, demonstrated strong explanatory power and could serve as valuable phenotypic indicators for seedling stage screening. Our findings suggest that drought adaptation in spring wheat involves a strategic coupling in which specific cortical configurations facilitate the development of deep root architecture. While previous studies have often focused on individual parameters, we show that drought-tolerant genotypes optimize root growth in deeper segments of the growth medium by adjusting cortical tissue proportions, potentially minimizing metabolic costs. Discussion: This integrated perspective offers a detailed physiological framework for understanding drought resilience and moves toward a mechanism-based interpretation of resource reallocation. However, it is important to note that these results were obtained using a paper-based phenotyping platform under PEG-induced osmotic stress, reflecting the genotypic potential at the seedling stage rather than actual field drought tolerance. In conclusion, combining the paper-based high-throughput phenotyping platform with a multi-trait evaluation framework allows for the accurate classification of drought tolerance types and the efficient identification of representative spring wheat cultivars. The findings emphasize the importance of deep root configuration and optimized cortical allocation as fundamental components of the root structural basis for drought adaptation in spring wheat. These results provide clear phenotypic targets for early-stage screening, which should be further validated at later developmental stages and under field conditions before being applied in breeding programs.
Apple leaf disease segmentation is critical for yield and quality preservation in what is globally one of the most economically significant fruit crops. Despite recent advances in deep learning, real-world orchard environments present three primary challenges: (1) low contrast between lesions and background textures, which hinders accurate localization; (2) leaf overlap and occlusion, leading to incomplete feature representation and increased false negatives; and (3) the inherent limitations of unimodal RGB imagery in capturing subtle pathological features, which constrains generalization and accuracy. To address these issues, we proposed Language-Infused Visual Mamba (LViM), a dual-path U-Net architecture that integrates Mamba and Transformer modules for semantic-visual feature fusion. LViM achieves robust segmentation in complex environments through three core innovations: (1) A U-shaped Multimodal Transformer (MTT) branch integrated with AMBERT, which leverages inter-modal semantic relationships to enhance textual feature extraction and provide high-level semantic cues, thereby improving lesion-background discriminability; (2) a U-shaped Visual State Space (VMamba) branch that employs 2D Selective Scanning (SS2D) and Visual State Space (VSS) blocks to capture global context and fine-grained details, mitigating the impact of occlusion; and (3) Cross-Attention Gate Fusion (CAGF) and Linguistic Cross-Nested (LCN) modules that facilitate efficient cross-modal alignment and hierarchical feature modeling to better identify subtle lesions. Experimental results demonstrate that LViM consistently outperforms the VM-UNet baseline, yielding improvements of 4.05% in Precision, 4.25% in Dice coefficient, 4.49% in mIoU, and 4.23% in Recall.
Reproduction assets foundThe paper's curated multimodal apple leaf disease dataset (image-text pairs with pixel-level annotations for four disease types) is explicitly stated as publicly released in the authors' LViM GitHub repository. Code/models are only promised 'upon acceptance,' so the dataset asset qualifies as public, while the code is.Dataset · publicThe curated multimodal apple leaf disease dataset constructed in this study has been publicly released at https://github.com/csuft1906ll/LViMOpen asset ↗csuft1906ll/LViMlines:273-283Plant phenotyping relevance matchbioRxiv · checked 11 Sept 2026
Cassava is a major staple crop in tropical regions, particularly in Sub-Saharan Africa, yet its productivity remains constrained by genetic and agronomic limitations. A major bottleneck in cassava breeding is the difficulty of accurately phenotyping agronomic traits under field conditions using conventional, labor-intensive methods. Here, we evaluated the potential of uncrewed aerial vehicle (UAV)-based phenotyping to quantify canopy growth traits and assess their genetic relevance under realistic field conditions. For this, multi-temporal UAV imagery was collected over two growing seasons (2018-2019 and 2019-2020) in a panel of 46 cassava genotypes planted in fields of the International Institute for Tropical Agriculture (IITA), Nigeria. Canopy height, canopy volume, and their relative growth rates (RGRh and RGRv) were extracted at the plot-level, and their seasonal dynamics and canopy-yield relationships were further assessed across developmental stages and environmental conditions. Repeatability (R) and broad-sense heritability (H2) were estimated using a linear mixed model (LMM) that partitioned genetic, genotype-by-year, and residual variance components, enabling the evaluation of both measurement reliability and genetic signal. Overall, UAV-derived growth dynamics were found to exhibit comparable patterns across genotypes, reflecting shared seasonal growth trajectories, while canopy-yield relationships varied with developmental stage and environmental conditions. In terms of genetic metrics, R was high for all UAV-derived traits (R = 0.68-0.69), indicating reliable genotype-level assessment across replicates and seasons. In contrast, H2 differed substantially among traits. Canopy volume (H2 = 0.64) and canopy height (H2 = 0.58) exhibited moderate-to-high heritability, reflecting strong genotype effects and comparatively moderate genotype-by-year interactions. However, their relative growth rates showed near-zero H2 values, driven primarily by genotype-by-year interaction, indicating a dominant environmental influence. These results demonstrate that UAV-derived canopy height and volume provide a consistent basis for genetic differentiation of cassava genotypes across environments, supporting their use in selection, whereas growth-rate traits are better suited for characterizing growth plasticity and genotype-by-environment interactions.
Estimating the age and growth of long-lived desert succulents is challenging due to the absence of annual growth rings. This study utilizes Single-Image Photogrammetry (SIP) and a historical photograph taken by G. Sykes in 1965 and two replicated photographs obtained in 2016 and 2025 to analyze architectural changes over six decades in an iconic “Boojum tree” ( Fouquieria columnaris ) and an adjacent columnar cactus ( Pachycereus pringlei ) from a relictual population in Sonora, Mexico. Results indicate that F. columnaris exhibited a slow mean vertical growth rate of 1.71 cm yr −1 during the 1965-2016 interval which increased to 3 cm yr −1 for the recent 2016-2025 period. This acceleration aligned with values recorded at more favorable sites (i.e. 3.3 to 3.6 cm yr −1 ). Conversely, P. pringlei exhibited a minimal growth rate (1.01 cm yr −1 ), which is much lower than rates reported from repeat photography (5-10 cm yr −1 ) or radiocarbon dating of spines (3-23 cm yr −1 ). Together, these species demonstrate high ecological resilience near their physiological limits in the Sonoran Desert through divergent morphofunctional pathways. F. columnaris favors architectural stability and sustained growth, whereas P. pringlei relies on mechanical robustness and structural redundancy. These findings highlight the efficacy of SIP and historical records for long-term demographic monitoring in extreme arid environments.
Litchi is an important economic fruit in southern China, and its precision management relies on the rapid and accurate estimation of the Soil and Plant Analyzer Development (SPAD) values in leaves. Addressing the limitations of existing SPAD detection methods, such as limited rapid coverage, inadequate modeling of dynamic environmental interference, and shallow fusion of multi-source data, this study constructed an Internet of Things (IoT) system to collect real-time environmental data from a litchi orchard, combined with unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV) multispectral imagery to obtain canopy vegetation index and texture features. A Long Short-Term Memory (LSTM) network model integrated with a feature level attention mechanism (MLSTM) was proposed to fuse IoT time-series data, vegetation index, and high dimensional texture features for dynamic SPAD value prediction. The results indicate that multi-source feature fusion significantly improves SPAD estimation accuracy. The MLSTM model achieved optimal performance under the all-features situation, with a coefficient of determination (R²) of 0.897 and a root mean square error (RMSE) of 2.638, outperforming other comparative models. The attention mechanism effectively enhanced the model's focus on key features, improving feature utilization efficiency and model interpretability. The multi-source data fusion method and MLSTM model proposed in this study enable high precision, dynamic estimation of SPAD values in litchi leaves, providing reliable data support for precision fertilization, stress diagnosis, and yield prediction in litchi orchards, as well as theoretical support for promoting the practical application of this technology in smart agriculture.
Reproduction assets foundThe paper's data availability statement points to a public Zenodo repository containing the study's multi-source SPAD/IoT/multispectral dataset.Dataset · publicThe datasets presented in this study can be found in online repositories. The names of the repository/repositories and accession number(s) can be found below: https://zenodo.org/records/18308090 .Open asset ↗zenodo · 18308090lines:427-441Plant phenotyping relevance matchEurope PMC · checked 5 Sept 2026
Abstract Accurate prediction of maize yield is crucial for improving field management and enabling timely yield estimation. To improve the accuracy and determine the optimal timing of field-scale spring maize yield estimation in the Junggar Basin, this study focuses on spring maize in this region. In 2023, UAV-based multispectral images were acquired at three key growth stages: jointing, filling, and milk stages. Eighteen spectral features significantly correlated with yield were selected. Spring maize yield prediction models were constructed using XGBoost, CatBoost, RF, DT, SVR, GP, LR, and a stacked ensemble learning model, respectively, revealing differences in prediction accuracy across growth stages. Finally, SHAP was used for model interpretability analysis. The results show that: (1) The milk stage achieved the highest prediction accuracy (R² = 0.761, MAE = 0.067 kg·m⁻², RMSE = 0.089 kg·m⁻², MAPE = 5.055%), outperforming the jointing and early grain-filling stages, thereby resolving the uncertainty regarding the optimal timing for UAV-based yield estimation of spring maize in the Junggar Basin. (2) Compared with traditional machine learning algorithms, the stacked ensemble model exhibited stronger robustness and generalization ability. This study provides a technical reference for timely yield estimation and field management of spring maize in irrigated areas of the Junggar Basin, supporting regional food production stability.
Accurate assessment of plant dry matter (PDM) and plant N accumulation (PNA) provides essential indicators for precision nitrogen (N) management in rice production. However, purely data-driven models struggle to generalize due to the spatial scarcity of ground-truth physiological data. To address this, a physiology-informed long short-term memory (PI-LSTM) framework was developed for robust regional N diagnosis and variable-rate fertilization. First, the model was pretrained to internalize crop growth dynamics using a DSSAT-based simulation library, which spanned 2000 representative fields and 700 management scenarios to provide physiologically consistent pseudo-labels. Subsequently, the framework was fine-tuned using multi-year field observations (2020, 2023, 2024), Sentinel-2 time-series data, and meteorological inputs. The proposed LSTM framework outperformed conventional machine learning approaches in estimating PDM and PNA, achieving five-fold cross-validation R 2 values of 0.87 and 0.83, respectively. Based on these biophysical estimations, the N nutrition index (NNI) diagnosis achieved a 67.3% overall classification accuracy. Furthermore, by integrating the critical N dilution curve, the critical PNA and accumulated N deficiency (AND) were quantified, which served as the basis for developing the AND-based N recommendation algorithm (ANDA). Finally, variable-rate topdressing field experiments conducted across seven sites in 2024 and 2025 demonstrated that the ANDA reduced N input by 13.4% compared with farmers' practices, while maintaining or increasing yield and improving N partial factor productivity by 18.6%. This study provides a reliable, physically consistent decision-support framework for regional-scale precision N management.
Kuang M, Wang Y, Li X, Liu D, Xiang Y, Liu F, Zou X, Xie F, Zhang Y, Li X.
Field / plotFlowerObject detectionPose / keypoint estimation
Agricultural engineering informatics is playing an increasingly important role in enabling intelligent perception, decision-making, and automated operations in modern horticultural production systems. Within this context, accurate visual perception of reproductive structures is essential for agricultural informatization tasks such as flowering-stage monitoring, precision pollination, and information-driven fruit-set management in chili cultivation. However, reliable detection and pose-aware recognition of chili flowers remain challenging because of small target size, dense distribution, foliage occlusion, and illumination variability in natural or semi-controlled environments. To address these challenges, this study proposes a lightweight and robust edge vision framework, termed CFPR-YOLO, for chili flower detection and pose-aware perception under complex agricultural conditions. Built upon an improved YOLOv11n architecture, the proposed framework incorporates EfficientFormerV2 to strengthen global-context feature extraction, a C3k2_EMA module to enhance localization of small and occluded targets, and Poly-Scale Convolution (PSConv) to preserve structural details while reducing computational redundancy. In addition, a lightweight attention mechanism is introduced to improve feature discrimination in cluttered backgrounds. Experimental results on both self-constructed and generalization datasets show that the proposed method achieves a precision of 92.6%, a recall of 86.8%, and an mAP50 of 92.1% with only 7.26 M parameters. The framework also demonstrates strong robustness and generalization across different chili varieties. When deployed on an edge computing platform (NVIDIA Jetson AGX Orin), the model achieves real-time inference at 39.5 FPS. Furthermore, validation experiments under controlled indoor conditions show that the proposed framework can effectively support simulated pollination tasks, achieving a success rate of 90.0% for upwardfacing flowers. These results indicate that CFPR-YOLO provides an effective visual perception solution for agricultural engineering informatics-oriented pollination systems and offers practical potential for precision pollination and intelligent fruit-set management in horticultural production.
Advancing wheat breeding requires reliable digital traits that capture genotype × environment interactions and improve yield prediction across diverse growing conditions. Although vegetation indices such as the normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI) are widely used, their performance relative to yield variability and environmental stress remains underexplored in multi-environment trials. This study utilized unmanned aerial vehicle multispectral imagery to derive NDVI and assess its relationship with grain yield in 34 spring and winter wheat variety trials. These trials included data across seven Washington State locations in different precipitation zones, five years (2019 to 2023), and some irrigated trials. Environments were grouped into high-, moderate-, and low-stress clusters based primarily on precipitation and temperature. Variability was quantified using the coefficient of variation, and correlations between grain yield and NDVI were evaluated within and between varieties across environments based on market classes (hard and soft spring and winter wheat). Across all environments and varieties, NDVI strongly correlated with grain yield ( r = 0.79-0.82, p r = 0.72 in hard spring, r = 0.53 in soft spring). These conditions also improved discrimination between varieties. Although heritability patterns were not clearly differentiated by stress clusters, environments with higher genetic control of yield also tended to show stronger NDVI heritability. Overall, NDVI reliably captured wheat grain yield, which is governed by the genotype × environment driven variability, with its predictive value strongest in stress-prone conditions. These findings underline NDVI's usability as a practical digital trait for improving variety testing and guiding breeding decisions in challenging environments.
Reproduction assets found保存済みの本文根拠を更新済みルールで再検証し、公開資産1件を確認しました。Dataset · publicTrial data, including grain yield, variety, and market class information, were obtained from the Washington State University Extension Cereal Variety Selection and Testing Program ( https://smallgrains.wsu.edu/variety/ ).Open asset ↗lines:38-48Code / dataset availability confirmedEurope PMC · checked 15 Sept 2026
Brown H, McCallum J, Johnston P, Pither-Joyce M, Macknight R, Huth N, Moot D, Zheng B, Zhao Z, Hunt J, Wang E.
WheatGrowth chamberLeafGrowth / time-series analysisGrowth / development / phenology
Disentangling genotype × environment (G×E) controls of flowering time requires phenotypes that link molecular regulation, developmental physiology and environment. Here, we integrated time-resolved measurements of apical development, final leaf number (FLN), and expression of the flowering-time genes VRN1, VRN2 and VRN3 across contrasting temperature and photoperiod regimes in six wheat genotypes spanning a wide range of developmental sensitivities. By combining controlled-environment phenotyping with concurrent gene-expression profiling, we show that environmentally driven variation in FLN is coherently explained by shifts in the timing of key apical transitions and associated VRN gene-expression dynamics. These integrated datasets were used to parameterise and interrogate the Cereal Anthesis Molecular Phenology (CAMP) model, enabling direct comparison between observed foliar gene-expression time courses and modelled gene activity. While overall developmental responses were well captured by the model, systematic differences between observed and modelled gene-expression patterns highlight the importance of distinguishing foliar expression from apical regulatory activity, as well as differences in temporal scaling. Building on this framework, we present a phenotyping protocol based on FLN responses to defined temperature and photoperiod treatments that delivers unconfounded developmental phenotypes explicitly linked to underlying genetic regulation.
Reproduction assets foundThe paper's CAMP model code and the analysis scripts producing its figures are explicitly stated as publicly available on the authors' GitHub repository, directly reproducing this paper's phenotyping analysis.Code · publicwere also validated and the best-performing sets selected. A
348 description of each of the primers used in this study is given in the supplementary material
349 (Table SA1).
350 2.9 Verification of CAMP predictions
351 2.9.1 Model set-up and operation.
352 The CAMP model was coded into a Python script which is available at
353 https://github.com/HamishBrownPFR/CAMP/blob/master/CAMP.ipynb. A formal
354 description of the code and parameterisation scheme is given in the supplementary material.
355 The FLN developmental phenotypes measured for each genotype (Section 3.1) were used to
356 derive the Vrn expression parameters needed for CAMP. Each of the treatments was
357 simulated using CAMP wOpen asset ↗https://github.com/HamishBrownPFR/CAMP/pdf-layout-page:14 lines:1-49Code · publicpression parameters needed for CAMP. Each of the treatments was
357 simulated using CAMP with its corresponding daily temperature and Pp, so its predictions of
358 Vrn gene expression could be compared with those observed. The script running the CAMP
359 code and producing the graphs displayed in this paper can be viewed at
360 https://github.com/HamishBrownPFR/CAMP/blob/master/Tests/CAMPCETests.py.
14
UNOFFICIALOpen asset ↗https://github.com/HamishBrownPFR/CAMP/pdf-layout-page:14 lines:1-49Code · publicnd testing of the model in
690 broader contexts. EW contributed substantially to the improvement of model concepts and the
691 manuscript and all authors provided final checking.
692 8. Data Availability
693 All the data and scripts used to analyse data and produce graphs as well as CAMP model code are
694 publicly available at https://github.com/HamishBrownPFR/CAMP/
695 9. References
696 Allard V, Otto V, Bela K, Rousset M, Le Gouis J, Martre P. 2012. The quantitative
697 response of wheat vernalization to environmental variables indicates that vernalization is not
698 a response to cold temperature. Journal of Experimental Botany 63: 847–857.
699 Baumont M, Parent B, Manceau L, Brown HE,Open asset ↗https://github.com/HamishBrownPFR/CAMP/pdf-layout-page:31 lines:1-60Plant phenotyping relevance matchEurope PMC · checked 5 Sept 2026
Cold hardiness is a critical trait for grapevine survival and productivity in cold climates. This study examined the relationships among cane morphological characteristics, shoot color parameters, and cold hardiness in two grapevine cultivars ('Prairie Star' and 'Frontenac') across four dormant-season sampling times (ST 1-ST 4) and three internode diameter classes (small, normal, and large). Morphological traits, including internode length, shoot diameter, and cross-sectional area, did not show a consistent temporal trend across sampling periods, suggesting that the observed variation was primarily associated with sampling time and cane class rather than progressive structural change during dormancy. In contrast, colorimetric traits showed a clear seasonal pattern, with shoots becoming darker and redder from ST 1 to ST 4, consistent with advancing lignification and cane maturation. Cold hardiness, assessed using low-temperature exotherms of bud, phloem, and xylem tissues, increased substantially from early to mid-dormancy, with xylem tissues reaching the greatest freezing tolerance by ST 3-ST 4. 'Prairie Star' showed slightly greater xylem cold hardiness than 'Frontenac', while bud survival remained consistently high across all treatments. Strong associations between shoot color and LTE values indicate that color traits, particularly at the fifth internode, may serve as reliable non-destructive indicators of cold hardiness status. Sampling time was the primary source of multivariate variation, with cultivar and internode class contributing secondary effects. These findings demonstrate that observable cane traits, especially shoot color, reflect the progression of seasonal cold acclimation and may support the evaluation and selection of cold-hardy grapevine germplasm.
Hybrid wheat breeding offers a promising route to enhance grain yield and yield stability through heterosis, yet hybrid grain production remains constrained by limited cross-pollination efficiency due to high rates of autogamy. To achieve cross-pollination in an autogamous species like wheat, pollen must shed outside the floret. This is typically assessed by scoring visual anther extrusion (VAEX), a key floral trait that sets the foundation for cross-pollination. However, VAEX explains only part of the variation in hybrid grain set. To address this, we analyzed floral structures and reproductive processes underlying cross-pollination efficiency in wheat. From 24 elite winter wheat genotypes, we developed traits describing anther extrusion kinetics, pollen release, and floral bract architecture. These traits showed substantial genotypic variation and high heritability. While VAEX alone explained approximately 49% of the variation in hybrid grain set, combined trait analyses explained up to 77%, demonstrating that hybrid grain production is governed by coordinated floral and reproductive trait interactions. Together, our analyses define a hierarchical trait architecture linking floral bract mechanics, anther extrusion dynamics, and pollen shedding to cross-fertilization success. This establishes a systems-level phenotyping framework for improving male parent selection in hybrid wheat breeding. Highlight High cross-pollination efficiency in wheat is a multi-factorial process that requires lighter floral bract architecture combined with adequate anther extrusion and pollen release for improving hybrid grain production.
Juan Pedro Carbonell Rivera · Jesús Torralba · Pablo Crespo-Peremarch · James McGlade · Marina Simó-Martí · Luis Ruiz Fernandez · Iyán Teijido-Murias
Field / plotNeRF / 3D Gaussian SplattingPhotogrammetry / SfM / MVSLiDAR / point cloudStem / branchMorphology / geometry measurement2D/3D reconstructionArchitecture / morphology / geometry
Accurate characterization of tree stem geometry is essential for forest inventories, yet conventional field measurements of diameter at breast height (DBH) are limited to a single cross-section and do not capture vertical variability along the trunk. This study compares five approaches for stem characterization in a Mediterranean forest: mobile laser scanning (MLS), consumer-grade iPad-LiDAR, Structure from Motion (SfM) photogrammetry, Gaussian Splatting (GS), and manual field measurements. Data were acquired simultaneously within a 2.5 m radial plot. DBH was estimated through RANSAC-based circular fitting, and stem sections were extracted every 20 cm to assess diameter stability along the trunk. All techniques produced similar mean DBH values closely matching field measurements (23 cm), with MLS achieving the lowest RMSE (1.29 cm), followed by SfM (1.52 cm), GS (1.60 cm), and iPad-LiDAR (2.26 cm). However, marked differences were observed in vertical completeness. MLS captured the full vertical profile of the stems, reaching 14.11 m, whereas SfM and GS from iPhone, and iPad-LiDAR were limited to approximately 6 m or less. The results indicate that although low-cost image-based approaches can provide accurate DBH estimates under controlled conditions, MLS remains the most robust solution for comprehensive vertical stem characterization.
Accurate and standardized phenotyping of complex, environmentally sensitive quantitative traits remains a major bottleneck for reliable locus discovery and breeding applications. Here, we established a skeleton-guided 3D digital phenotyping framework that generates standardized digital replicas and enables precise quantification of fruit and plant architecture traits in cucumber. The workflow was applied to a permanent recombinant inbred line (RIL) population (n = 211) evaluated across two seasons (2023-2024), from which nine traits were extracted from 3D models. All 211 RILs were whole-genome resequenced to generate genome-wide SNPs, enabling construction of a high-density linkage map and subsequent QTL mapping, complemented by GWAS for physical anchoring of association signals. Using this integrated design, we identified 29 QTLs across the nine traits and resolved cross-season major-effect loci with consistent genetic signals. Notably, two cross-season loci were detected as novel: FL4.1/FSL4.1 affecting fruit length and fruit stalk length, and NLB1.1/LLB1.1 affecting branching. GWAS further anchored lead variants to physical coordinates and supported cross-season associations. Together, these results demonstrate that standardized 3D phenotyping provides a reproducible and interoperable trait definition framework that supports cross-season locus discovery and downstream marker development for quantitative genetic dissection in cucumber.
Drought is the major abiotic stress limiting soybean growth and yield, yet accurately identifying genotypes that sustain yield under rainfed conditions remains a major bottleneck in soybean breeding. Canopy wilting scores are widely used as a proxy for evaluating plant responses to drought stress. However, most assessments rely on leaf-level visual observations that are inherently subjective and typically based on single time-point scores, providing only a snapshot of stress expression and failing to capture their relationship with yield retention under rainfed conditions. To address these limitations, this study used Unmanned Aerial Vehicle (UAV)-based high-throughput phenotyping at a single growth stage (R4/R5) as a more quantitative and objective alternative to visual scoring, with closer relevance to yield performance under drought conditions. From 2023 to 2025, a total of 85 soybean genotypes developed by soybean breeding programs in Arkansas, Missouri, Kansas, and North Carolina, along with commercial checks, were evaluated under irrigated and rainfed conditions in Stuttgart, Arkansas. Visual canopy wilting scores were recorded at R4/R5, along with vegetation indices captured using UAV-based multispectral imagery. UAV-derived indices showed significant correlations with yield ( r = 0.22 to 0.45, p<0.05) under rainfed conditions. In contrast, visual canopy wilting scores displayed weak and inconsistent associations with yield ( r = -0.28 to 0.35, p<0.05), suggesting limited ability to capture yield retention under rainfed conditions. Unsupervised k -means clustering ( n = 2) of UAV-derived vegetation indices separated genotypes into two distinct canopy response groups that were consistent across 2023 to 2025 rainfed seasons. Significant differences were observed among clusters for several vegetation indices (ARI, CIG, CIRE, GSAVI, GNDVI, GOSAVI, OSAVI, NDVI), indicating contrasting canopy stress responses. Under rainfed conditions, these UAV-defined clusters also differed for grain yield (2023: 1,925.6 vs 1,703.1 kg/ha; 2024: 1,849.9 vs 1,229.2 kg/ha; 2025: 2,056.7 vs 1,773.8 kg/ha), whereas visual wilting scores failed to distinguish yield-retaining genotypes. Overall, UAV-based high-throughput phenotyping offers a robust and yield-relevant alternative to visual wilting scores, supporting the development of drought-tolerant soybean germplasm and cultivars.
Interest in light detection and ranging (LiDAR) for the precise monitoring of vegetative growth of grain crops has increased. The study was conducted to estimate wheat size and plant distance using LiDAR and the convex hull method (CHM) compared to the voxel grid method (VGM). A commercial LiDAR system was used for data collection in the middle and late growth stages using static and dynamic scanning. A small number (ten) of data frames, consisting of a region of interest (ROI) of 1 m × 0.9 m for each frame, were selected as data samples. The data processing workflow consisted of data conversion, targeted data frame selection, visualization, region of interest (ROI) segmentation, outlier and untargeted point removal, downsampling, denoising, voxelization, preparation of the convex hull, and 3D PCD density map. To estimate the plant size and distance of wheat, the results obtained using CHM and VGM were compared with measured data results, and both methods were applied for the middle and late growth stages of wheat. The relative accuracy of LiDAR-estimated plant height, canopy volume, plant spacing, and row distances with respect to the measured results were 94%, 87%, 94%, and 87%, respectively, using CHM, and 76%, 72%, 62%, and 71% by VGM for static data scanning; for dynamic scanning, the estimated relative accuracy percentages were 87%, 91%, 94%, and 93%, respectively, using CHM, and 77%, 74%, 75%, and 74%, respectively, using VGM. The same methods were applied to the late growth stage data sets. Between the two methods, CHM provided higher accuracy for static and dynamic data-scanning approaches in the middle and late growth stages because the complex geometry of plants, thin and sparse leaf area, and structure complicated voxelization. Despite several challenges in PCD collection and processing, this study supports size and distance estimation for wheat and similar grains as non-destructive methods.
Sergio Salgado-Velázquez · Hilario Becerril-Hernández · Lorenzo Armando Aceves-Navarro · Joaquín Alberto Rincón-Ramírez · Samuel Córdova-Sánchez · David Julián Palma-Cancino
Yield estimation in sugarcane systems remains a major challenge in tropical regions due to the reliance on destructive, labor-intensive, and spatially limited field measurements. Although remote sensing has been widely used for crop monitoring, its predictive performance is often constrained when spectral information is used in isolation. This study proposes a data fusion framework integrating multitemporal Sentinel-2 spectral bands with meteorological variables to improve sugarcane biomass prediction under tropical conditions. A commercial field was monitored throughout the 2022–2023 growing season, and machine learning models, including random forest (RF), support vector machine (SVM), and multiple linear regression (MLR), were developed to estimate stem, foliage, and total biomass. To reduce potential spatial data leakage caused by spatial autocorrelation within the field, model performance was evaluated using Spatial Block Cross-Validation. Results showed that integrating spectral and meteorological data consistently improved predictive performance compared to spectral-only and weather-only scenarios. Spectral bands exhibited stronger relationships with biomass than derived vegetation indices, while maximum temperature and solar radiation were identified as key drivers of biomass variability. RF combined with spectral–weather fusion achieved the highest predictive performance, reaching R2 values up to 0.95, RMSE values as low as 5296.35, and rRMSE values close to 18% for stem biomass, consistently outperforming SVM and MLR. In contrast, spectral-only scenarios produced lower predictive accuracy and higher prediction errors across all biomass variables. This study provides one of the first field-scale implementations under humid tropical conditions in southeastern Mexico, where georeferenced yield data remain scarce.
Jorge Lagranja-Usán · Javier Pacheco-Labrador · Alejandro Carrascosa · Vicente Burchard-Levine · Víctor Rolo Romero · M. Pilar Martín
Field / plotMultispectral / hyperspectral
In this work, we estimate plant functional diversity of grass plots using high spatial resolution hyperspectral imagery. Results yielded negative correlations, independently of the image filters applied to remove non-vegetative elements and the selection of functional traits. Simulations performed with the Biodiversity Observing System Simulation Experiment (BOSSE) suggest that these results arise from the combination of different methodologies to estimate functional diversity: moving windows for the imagery and species’ averages for the plant functional traits measured in the field. We show that simulations are a valuable tool to understand experimental results in the field of remote sensing of plant functional diversity.
Predicting canopy traits non-destructively is important for understanding crop growth and improving phenotyping efficiency. Hyperspectral reflectance provides detailed spectral information, but the role of band selection in regression-based trait prediction at the canopy scale remains unclear. In this study, we evaluated the effects of different band-selection algorithms on the prediction accuracy of aboveground biomass (AGB), leaf area index (LAI), and canopy cover (CC) in soybeans across multiple sites, years, cultivars, and irrigation treatments. We compared a full-band partial least squares regression (PLS) model with three band-selection methods (PLS-Variable Importance in Projection (VIP), Bootstrapped least absolute shrinkage and selection operator (LASSO) (BoLASSO), and an ensemble approach), and model performance was assessed using independent validation datasets. The results showed that the effectiveness of band selection depended on the target trait. Full-band PLS provided the highest accuracy for AGB, whereas BoLASSO achieved comparable accuracy to PLS for LAI and CC using a reduced number of selected bands. The selected wavelengths were located mainly in the visible, red-edge, and near-infrared regions. These results indicate that band-selection strategies should be tailored to the target trait and provide a basis for efficient band design in crop phenotyping.
Weijuan Hu · Xiaoqian Chen · Jianping Yu · Jie Deng · Xiao Ye · Changquan Zhang · Shuoxun Wang · Wenzhen Song · Yafeng Ye · Xiuhua Gao · Wanneng Yang · Qiang Liu · Xiangdong Fu · Kun Wu
Rice ( Oryza sativa ) grain quality is an important breeding target, yet its genetic basis remains incompletely understood. In this study, we integrated hyperspectral phenotyping with genome-wide association study (GWAS) to investigate apparent amylose content (AAC) and protein content (PC) in 241 modern rice varieties. Using a visible-shortwave infrared hyperspectral system combined with optimized preprocessing and machine-learning pipelines, we achieved accurate predictions for AAC ( R 2 = 0.97) and PC ( R 2 = 0.92). Hyperspectral-based GWAS identified both known loci and previously unreported genetic associations. For AAC, qAAC (780.791nm) -1-3 was mapped to the Green Revolution gene SD1 , showing that the sd1 allele increases AAC while conferring high yields. For PC, we identified qPC (1998.98nm) -5-1 and confirmed GW5 as the causal gene, linking the high-yielding gw5 allele with high grain PC. Hyperspectral features outperformed traditional measurements, enhancing the detection of genetic signals. This study provides an efficient strategy for elucidating the genomic architecture of complex grain-quality traits.
Tree height is a fundamental attribute in ecological research and commercial forestry, serving as a key indicator of site productivity. Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAVs) equipped with RGB cameras and Light Detection and Ranging (LiDAR) sensors offer a cost- and time-efficient alternative to traditional field-based, satellite, and manned aircraft methods for tree height measurement. The objectives of this study are: (1) to evaluate the effects of UAV flight speed and image overlap on data quality, mission efficiency, and processing requirements; (2) to compare the performance of Structure-from-Motion (SfM) photogrammetry and LiDAR in generating canopy height models (CHMs); and (3) to quantify the accuracy of UAV-derived tree height estimates relative to field measurements and identify optimal flight configurations. Three flight speeds (10, 15, and 20 mph) and four forward/side overlap levels (50%, 60%, 70%, and 80%) were tested, with UAV-derived height estimates validated against 920 field-measured trees. Both datasets were processed in ArcGIS Pro to produce canopy height models (CHMs), RGB imagery via Structure-from-Motion (SfM) photogrammetry, and LiDAR data from laser-scanned point clouds. Orthomosaic quality was assessed using tie point density, reprojection error, ground resolution, image georeferencing deviation, Global Positioning System (GPS) root mean squared error (RMSE), and block adjustment success, while LiDAR point cloud quality was evaluated using point density (pts/m 2 ) and height percentiles (P25, P50, P75, P95). Height estimation accuracy for both sensors was quantified using the coefficient of determination (R 2 ), RMSE, and Bias. Results indicate that image overlap exerted a stronger and more consistent influence than flight speed across all dimensions of mission efficiency, data volume, and processing time. Flight duration more than doubled and image counts increased sixfold when overlap increased from 50:50 to 80:80. Higher overlaps improved orthomosaic continuity, tie point density, reprojection accuracy, and CHM quality, though at the cost of longer processing times, greater storage demands, and increased computational requirements. LiDAR point density similarly increased with overlap, yielding smoother CHMs at ≥70% overlap, while height percentiles remained stable across configurations. In terms of accuracy, UAV imagery at 10 mph with 80:80 overlap achieved the best photogrammetric performance (R 2 ≈ 0.60, RMSE = 4.5 m, Bias = 4.3 m), though all imagery-derived estimates exhibited systematic height underestimation. LiDAR-derived heights were substantially more robust across all flight configurations, with the best performance at 10 mph and 80:80 overlap (R 2 ≈ 0.89, RMSE < 1.5 m, Bias < 0.5 m). These findings demonstrate that higher overlap, particularly at moderate flight speeds, substantially enhances data quality and tree height estimation accuracy, offering practical guidance for optimizing UAV-based forest inventory workflows.
Aroma is a primary determinant of rice quality and market value, yet its evaluation in breeding programs remains constrained by labor-intensive milling, cooked-grain sensory methods, binary screening assays, and the limited seed availability of early generation selection. Moreover, aromatic rice breeding has historically focused narrowly on 2-acetyl-1-pyrroline-mediated popcorn aroma, potentially overlooking valuable alternative aromatic profiles. In this study, we developed a rapid sensory phenotyping approach for paddy rice that enables quantitative assessment of the aroma intensity and qualitative aroma characterization without milling or cooking. A diverse panel of 126 rice genotypes was evaluated using 1 g of ground paddy rice heated under controlled conditions coupled with sensory analysis and targeted HS-SPME-GC-MS/MS quantification of 164 volatile compounds. The method discriminated the aroma intensity and enabled characterization of aroma quality. Hierarchical clustering integrating sensory and chemical data resolved five distinct aroma classes, including popcorn-dominant, fruity-floral, nutty-grainy, woody-floral, and oxidation-driven phenotypes. While 2AP showed the strongest association with popcorn aroma and overall intensity ( r = 0.50), several high-intensity genotypes exhibited minimal 2AP, yet strong aroma perception driven by esters, alcohols, indole, and ketones. Interestingly, two genotypes (R125 and R126) showed strong popcorn perception despite much lower 2AP than typical aromatic rice, indicating the contribution of non-2AP popcorn-like aroma drivers. Conversely, genotypes with elevated lipid oxidation aldehydes exhibited high volatile abundance but poor aroma quality characterized by rancid, phenolic, and musty notes. These results demonstrate that superior rice aroma is a multivariate trait and is not related to only 2AP. The rapid phenotyping framework presented here provides breeding programs with an employable, information-rich tool for early generation screening, accelerating the identification of aromatic rice cultivars with expanded sensory diversity.
To overcome the limitations of single remote-sensing features in estimating maize canopy leaf area index (LAI), this study developed a UAV-based estimation approach by integrating multispectral vegetation indices (VIs) with digital surface model (DSM) features and stacking ensemble learning. Field experiments were conducted in Dehong, Yunnan Province, China, during 2023-2024, and UAV multispectral images and DSM products were acquired for maize grown under three planting-density treatments. Five vegetation indices and three DSM-derived texture/structural features were retained according to their correlation with measured LAI, statistical significance, and complementary spectral or structural information. The VI-based random forest (VI-RF) model achieved an R 2 of 0.835 and an NRMSE of 9.5%, whereas the DSM-based model showed lower performance (R 2 = 0.641; NRMSE = 14.2%). Under the same random-forest modeling framework, fusing VIs with DSM features improved the overall model performance to R 2 = 0.892 and NRMSE = 7.6%, indicating that DSM-derived structural information mainly enhanced the feature representation of maize LAI. Using the same VI-DSM feature set, the stacking model with support vector machine (SVM) as the meta-learner further improved the overall performance to R 2 = 0.930 and NRMSE = 6.3%. The additional gain from stacking was moderate but consistent, whereas feature fusion contributed the dominant improvement. The combined VI-DSM-Stacking workflow improved prediction stability across planting densities, especially under low- and high-density canopy conditions where soil background interference and spectral saturation were more evident. These results demonstrate that integrating spectral and DSM-derived structural information with stacking ensemble learning can improve the accuracy and robustness of UAV-based maize LAI estimation.
Daryl Yang · Bailey A Murphy · Wouter Hantson · Kathleen M Orndahl · Emma C Hall · Caroline Ludden · Logan T Berner · Andrew M Cunliffe · Michael Alonzo · Mark J Lara · Shawn P Serbin · Daniel J Hayes · Fernanda Santos · W Robert Bolton · Colleen M Iversen
Abstract Warmer temperatures, permafrost thaw, and increased wildfire activity are driving rapid ecological change across the Arctic, significantly altering plant productivity and aboveground biomass (AGB). These rapid changes highlight the urgent need to improve monitoring of vegetation dynamics in the Earth’s northern ecosystems, where high spatiotemporal heterogeneity occurs at scales finer than those captured by traditional satellite observations. The growing use of unoccupied aerial systems (UASs) presents an opportunity to overcome this limitation. Yet, the diversity of UAS platforms, sensors, and data collection and processing workflows presents challenges for developing standardized, generalizable approaches. To address this challenge, we compiled 672 AGB plots co-located with 183 UAS-based structure-from-motion (SfM) or light detection and ranging (LiDAR) surveys collected across the Arctic. Here, we: (1) evaluated the generalizability of UAS-derived canopy structure derived from high-resolution SfM and LiDAR for estimating AGB, (2) assessed scaling errors and their sources in two recent satellite-based AGB products derived from Landsat and moderate resolution imaging spectroradiometer, and (3) demonstrated the use of high-resolution AGB maps to quantify biomass variation across tundra plant functional types (PFTs) and to monitor post-fire recovery. Our results show that both SfM and LiDAR accurately captured AGB and its variability across tundra PFTs using a random forest model (overall root mean squared error: 0.332 kg m –2 ), with mapping performance varying slightly by region and data source. Using UAS-derived AGB maps as a benchmark, we identified systematic biases in satellite-derived AGB products, largely attributable to the magnitude of AGB and structural heterogeneity within coarse-resolution pixels. Applying our model to repeat UAS surveys following a tundra fire on Seward Peninsula, we observed rapid AGB recovery in non-shrub patches, with biomass recovering to pre-fire levels within two years. In contrast, shrub patches recovered more slowly, with AGB gains continuing over 2–4 years through both in-patch growth and lateral expansion (via dispersal) into remaining burned areas. Overall, these findings support the generalizability of UAS-based SfM and LiDAR data for estimating tundra AGB and highlight the need for broader collection and synthesis of such data to improve ecological monitoring and model benchmarking in the Arctic.
Reproduction assets found保存済みの本文根拠を更新済みルールで再検証し、公開資産1件を確認しました。Code · publicThe codes and training data is available on GitHub: https://github.com/Daryl-Open asset ↗pdf-page:20 lines:1-30Plant phenotyping relevance matchEurope PMC · checked 15 Sept 2026
Maize is a globally important staple that is used as food for human and animal consumption, fuel, and other industrial applications. Pathogens affect all stages of the plant life cycle and every plant organ, and lead to significant yield losses. An integrated strategy incorporating cultural and chemical management practices, as well as development of resistant plant varieties, is needed to prevent yield losses due to plant diseases. Large numbers of breeding material must be screened to develop pathogen-resistant maize varieties. Inoculation methods must be high-throughput to accommodate the large screening experiments. Additionally, there needs to be an extensive understanding of the plant-pathogen interaction to use a targeted biotechnology-based approach, which takes advantage of knowledge of the system to engineer resistance. To evaluate germplasm for breeding and biotechnology approaches, inoculation methods must replicate natural infection, and disease severity must be rated consistently to accurately screen germplasm or gather data on pathogens of interest. Here, we review inoculation and rating methods for Gibberella ear rot, seedling blight caused by Globisporangium ultimum var. ultimum , and Goss's wilt that are efficient and high-throughput. We also introduce fluorescence microscopy techniques for leaf samples infected with Exserohilum turcicum , the causal agent of northern corn leaf blight. These pathogens all cause significant yield losses, and in particular, Gibberella ear rot is associated with the accumulation of harmful mycotoxins. Understanding how pathogens cause disease and how plants defend against attack is a major goal of maize pathology studies and critical for developing integrated management strategies.
ABSTRACT Most land plants photosynthesize using the C 3 pathway, in which ribulose bisphosphate carboxylase/oxygenase (Rubisco) fixes CO 2 into 3-carbon acids. The C 4 pathway, a biochemical CO 2 -concentrating mechanism that operates in the context of specialized leaf anatomy to concentrate CO 2 around Rubisco, is more efficient. Introduction of the C 4 pathway into the C 3 crop rice could increase yield by 50%. Expression of five C 4 enzymes in transgenic rice previously led to flux through the first step. However, there was no evidence for flux later in the cycle. Here we developed new transgenic rice lines and novel protocols to detect C 4 cycle activity: CO 2 fixation into C 4 acids by carboxylation of a C 3 compound, decarboxylation, refixation of CO 2 by Rubisco, and regeneration of the C 3 donor. We demonstrate that these four core C 4 reactions are operating in rice, establishing the in vivo flux framework needed to progress towards a functional carbon-concentrating mechanism.
Understanding how crop trait variability shapes genotype × environment × management (G × E × M) interactions remains a key uncertainty in predicting agricultural performance under a changing climate. Continental-scale crop models commonly rely on spatially uniform parameters, limiting their ability to represent adaptive variation in phenology, allocation, and yield formation. Here we integrate the mechanistic agroecosystem model Ecosys with a deep learning-enabled model-data fusion inversion to infer spatially explicit physiological controls (trait proxies) of U.S. winter wheat directly from observations. By constraining simulations with satellite-derived photosynthesis and county-level yield records from 2008 to 2022 across ~1000 winter wheat-producing counties, the inversion recovers coherent patterns of maturity group, reproductive capacity, harvest index, and root-shoot allocation. The optimized simulations reproduce observed carbon uptake and yield variability (gross primary productivity r = 0.76-0.88; phenology bias 90% of yields within ±20% of reports) and reveal distinct physiological profiles that align with the geographic distributions of major winter wheat market classes. The inferred controls explain class- and region-specific climate sensitivities: warmer winters reduce vernalization success in late-maturing cultivars, while elevated vapor pressure deficit causes strong yield losses in rainfed Hard Red Winter wheat. The results demonstrate that observation-constrained trait inversion within model-data fusion framework reveals biologically meaningful crop-class variation, thereby providing a scalable, physiologically grounded framework for diagnosing adaptive diversity and climate vulnerability across agroecosystems.
This study established an integrated analytical method based on near-infrared spectroscopy (NIRS) for the rapid, non-destructive, and quantitative detection of four major nutritional components in faba beans: starch, protein, moisture, and dietary fiber. By systematically comparing individual and combined spectral preprocessing strategies, optimal preprocessing combinations for each component were identified. Seven feature wavelength selection algorithms, including Competitive Adaptive Reweighted Sampling (CARS), were employed to extract key spectral variables. Predictive models were subsequently developed using four modeling approaches: Partial Least Squares (PLS), Random Forest (RF), Support Vector Machine (SVM), and Multilayer Perceptron (MLP). The results demonstrated that combined preprocessing methods significantly outperformed single techniques. The CARS algorithm exhibited the most robust performance in feature extraction, and the MLP model consistently surpassed traditional machine learning methods in predicting all components. The optimal modeling pipelines for each component were ultimately determined as follows: starch (MLP + CARS + MSC + SG + MSS, R 2 = 0.92), protein (MLP + CARS + SD + SNV + MSC + MSS, R 2 = 0.94), moisture (MLP + SPA + SG + SNV, R 2 = 0.9973), and dietary fiber (MLP + PCA + FD + SNV, R 2 = 0.9999). This study verifies the effectiveness of combining NIRS with deep learning for the simultaneous detection of multiple components in faba beans and provides a reliable methodological framework for the non-destructive quality assessment of agricultural products.
Abstract. Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAVs) have become valuable tools for high-resolution ecological monitoring, particularly in complex environments such as mangrove forests. This study investigates the impact of flight altitude on the accuracy of tree height estimation in the Melgonze mangrove forest, in southern Iran. Two UAV flights were conducted at altitudes of 100 meters and 150 meters using a DJI Phantom 4 Pro, and photogrammetric processing was performed using Agisoft Metashape. A total of 16 mangrove trees were measured in the field to provide ground-truth reference data. Canopy height models (CHMs) were generated from both UAV datasets and compared to the field measurements. Preliminary results indicate that the 100-meter flight achieved higher accuracy, with a lower root mean square error (RMSE =21.2 cm), Mean Absolute Error (18.94 cm), and a higher coefficient of determination (R² = 0.97) compared to the 150-meter flight (43.3 cm, 35 cm, and 0.92, respectively). These findings underscore the significance of flight altitude in UAV-based assessments of forest structure and offer practical guidelines for optimizing data acquisition in future mangrove mapping applications.
While unmanned aircraft system (UAS)-based photogrammetry and light detection and ranging (LiDAR) are increasingly used for canopy height estimation in forestry and other orchard systems, their application to pecan orchards remains limited. Accurate measurements of tree height and canopy structure are essential in pecan production for assessing tree growth and health, and for supporting precision orchard management. This study provides one of the first systematic evaluations of UAS-based structure-from-motion (SfM) photogrammetry and UAS-mounted LiDAR for estimating pecan tree height. A rotary-wing UAS equipped with RGB and near-infrared (NIR) cameras collected imagery at 60 and 120 m aboveground over two pecan orchards containing 480 and 308 trees, and LiDAR data were acquired at 70 m. UAS imagery was processed to generate three-dimensional (3D) point clouds, digital surface models (DSMs), digital terrain models (DTMs), and orthomosaics. DTMs were derived using point cloud classification and DSM filtering, and tree heights were calculated relative to these terrain models using canopy height models (CHMs) and point cloud–based approaches. LiDAR data were processed to produce calibrated point clouds, DSMs, and DTMs, from which tree heights were extracted using comparable methods. Image-based tree heights showed strong agreement with manual measurements, with point cloud–derived high percentiles or maxima [ R 2 = 0.982–0.996; root mean square error (RMSE) = 14 to 25 cm] consistently outperforming CHM-based estimates across ground elevation methods, camera types, and flight altitudes. LiDAR-derived tree heights exhibited similarly high accuracy. Image-based and LiDAR-derived heights were strongly correlated across all trees at 120 m ( R 2 = 0.982–0.995; RMSE = 18–25 cm), confirming the reliability of SfM photogrammetry. However, incomplete canopy reconstruction in some 60 m datasets led to underestimation, highlighting the importance of sufficient image overlap for accurate 3D canopy modeling. These results demonstrate that UAS image-based point clouds can provide pecan tree heights comparable to LiDAR, offering a cost-effective approach for tree growth monitoring, orchard management, and precision agriculture applications.
Precise, non-destructive detection of fruit maturity is a cornerstone of modern precision agriculture, directly impacting harvest scheduling and post-harvest quality control. In the case of strawberries (Fragaria × ananassa), in-field automated assessment is persistently hampered by the fruit’s diminutive size, subtle physiological colour transitions, and frequent occlusion by foliage. To overcome these limitations, we developed SMLO-YOLO, a specialised lightweight vision system designed to reliably detect different maturity stages on edge devices under complex orchard conditions. The proposed architecture incorporates a Cross-Scale Aggregation Neck (HDP-Neck) driven by entropy-guided dynamic sampling, which effectively concentrates computational resources on fruit regions while filtering background noise. Additionally, we introduce a Shape-aware Intersection-over-Union (ShapeIoU) loss and a Boundary- and Class-aware Knowledge Distillation (BCKD) strategy to specifically address the challenge of detecting overlapping clusters and low-maturity fruits. Validation on custom datasets collected from commercial orchards in Sichuan and Shanxi demonstrated that the final SMLO-YOLO model, after BCKDloss-based knowledge distillation, achieved an mAP50 of 92.4% at an inference speed of 256.41 FPS, with 6.49 M parameters and 15.0 GFLOPs. These metrics indicate that the system successfully balances high-throughput detection with the non-harvestable low-maturity fruits of agricultural robotics, offering a robust tool for objective, real-time maturity monitoring.
UAV-based phenotyping enables efficient high-throughput measurement of field crops. Phenotypic monitoring of ramie is critical for its cultivation management and variety breeding. However, ramie exhibits characteristics including multiple annual harvests, short growth cycles and rapid dynamic growth change, all of which increase the difficulty of growth monitoring and yield estimation. This study aims to utilize UAV-based multispectral remote sensing to estimate ramie plant height (PH), leaf area index (LAI), and above-ground biomass (AGB) over multiple time series, and to assess the influence of seasonal effects and different data processing strategies on the accuracy of ramie digital phenotyping. Over three ramie growth cycles, a total of 15 UAV flights were conducted over an experimental field consisting of 72 plots. The structure from motion (SfM) algorithm was applied to estimate PH. Remote sensing features derived from UAV imagery were used with background segmentation and machine learning to estimate LAI. The AGB was estimated by combining remote sensing-derived PH, LAI, and climate data. The results showed that the estimated and measured phenotypes were highly correlated, with optimal coefficients of determination of 0.961 for PH and 0.873 for LAI. Background segmentation improved LAI accuracy. Integrating climate data, remote sensing-derived PH and LAI significantly enhanced the accuracy of AGB estimation. In conclusion, this study provides a feasible method for extracting ramie phenotypes from UAV remote sensing imagery, providing methodological support for large-scale management of the crop industry and intelligent, precise monitoring of crop growth.
Abstract. Accurate monitoring of vegetation health and canopy structure is essential for optimizing agricultural productivity and managing natural resources. Remote sensing technologies, combined with artificial intelligence (AI) and advanced satellite data, have revolutionized the capacity to assess crop conditions at large scales with high temporal and spatial resolution. This study leverages Sentinel-2 multispectral imagery and a novel AI-driven model approach to estimate Leaf Area Index (LAI) across multiple fields for canola. By integrating spectral reflectance data with view and solar geometry parameters, the model effectively captures the complex interactions between canopy structure and environmental factors. The methodology employs a two-layer neural network calibrated with physically based normalization to translate Sentinel-2 spectral and angular inputs into accurate LAI estimates. Validation against observed field measurements demonstrates strong agreement, underscoring the model’s robustness and reliability. Spatial analysis reveals distinct LAI patterns among the crop types, highlighting differences in canopy density and growth dynamics. Temporal profiling further illustrates crop-specific development trends, with canola showing extended canopy expansion. The results confirm that the fusion of remote sensing data with AI modelling provides a powerful tool for precision agriculture, enabling detailed monitoring of crop growth and facilitating informed decision-making. This approach offers significant potential for enhancing yield prediction, resource management, and sustainable farming practices, ultimately supporting global food security efforts.
Ding L, D'Agostino M, Degand T, Rothwell M, Dagbert T, Couvreur V.
MaizeTomatoLeafPhysiological trait estimationCalibration / preprocessingWater status / transpiration
Within the soil-plant-atmosphere continuum, water movement is driven by the water potential gradients between these three domains. To have a comprehensive understanding of such water relations, an examination of how plants respond to variations in soil water availability is required. The methodologies employed for measuring water potential in leaf (Ψ leaf ) and soil (Ψ soil ) have undergone a significant evolution; transitioning from qualitative assessments to the use of high-precision digital sensors over the past few decades. The present protocol aims to provide a comprehensive, step-by-step guide from the germination phase of maize and tomato plants to the installation of two sensors that continuously monitor water potential in the leaf (PSY1 psychrometer) and in the soil (TEROS 21 matric potential sensor). Additionally, we present the code for processing the raw data files in RStudio.
Reproduction assets foundThe paper deposits its authors' R analysis notebook with an example water-potential dataset, the CR800 datalogger program, and an installation video on Zenodo, all publicly accessible.Code · publicthat were missing, zero, or otherwise aberrant. It was also programmed to identify and remove inverted day-night cycle patterns, as well as values that were statistically insignificant.
Figure 9 shows applications of data cleaning on the example dataset. For more details, please check codes that have been deposited on Zenodo (
https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.20080750 ,
D’Agostino, 2026 ).
Figure 9.
Example of data cleaning using the algorithm.
Green is kept data and red is discarded data.
Conclusion
In summary, the present protocol is not confined to the descriptive monitoring of Ψ
soil
and Ψ
leafOpen asset ↗Zenodo · 10.5281/zenodo.20080750lines:452-504Code · public(1) the address of each Teros 21; (2) the data transporting port (“C1” or “C3”); (3) the creation of dataset files to store the recorded soil matric potential and temperature, as well as the voltage of the battery for power supply; (4) the time interval for the data recording.
An example of the program was deposited on Zenodo (
https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.17158115 ), with the document name of “Program-CR800”). Before starting, install the software of “Device Configuration Utility” and “PC400” from Campbell Scientific (
https://www.campbellsci.com/devconfig ;
https://www.campbellsci.com/pc400 ). “CRBasic Editor” is integrated inside PC400. For more details about the programming, please reOpen asset ↗Zenodo · 10.5281/zenodo.17158115lines:321-378Dataset · publiculic limitation, soil-root disconnection, and recovery. Consequently, this linkage of the protocol to mechanistic analyses of water transport in the SPAC is more direct.
Ethics and consent
Ethical approval and consent were not required.
Data availability
The datasets and codes to analyze the data have been deposited on Zenodo (
https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.20080750 ,
D’Agostino (2026) ).
Data are available under the terms of the Creative Commons Zero v1.0 Universal.
An additional explicative video for the psychrometer installation on leaves is available on Zenodo (
https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.17510720 ,
Degand
et al. (2025) ).
The author(s) declare that this video is released under theOpen asset ↗Zenodo · 10.5281/zenodo.20080750lines:505-651Plant phenotyping relevance matchCrossref · checked 5 Sept 2026
Fractional Vegetation Cover of Crops (CropFVC) is a critical canopy parameter for monitoring crop growth, yet the behavior of widely used global FVC products (GLASS, GEOV1, GEOV2, and GEOV3) over croplands remains insufficiently understood due to fragmented validation references and limited crop-specific assessments. This study compiled a multi-source global CropFVC reference dataset (2000–2024) by integrating five international validation networks, the literature-derived samples, and newly acquired UAV and Jilin-1 satellite-derived CropFVC samples from China in 2024. The references were organized into three complementary validation contexts (V1~V3) to examine product behavior under different temporal coverage, crop purity, and reference conditions, together with spatio-temporal observations at the KONZ site. Results show that (1) across validation contexts, the evaluated products showed consistent behavior patterns, including shared overestimation under dense canopy conditions and reduced differences at low FVC levels; (2) spatio-temporal analysis at the KONZ site confirmed that peak-season deviations reflect shared response behavior rather than site-specific reference uncertainties; (3) historical mixed references (V1~V2) showed similar bias structures, whereas crop-specific validation (V3) preliminary revealed clearer crop-dependent responses, with predictive difficulty following winter wheat > maize > rice > soybean and improved stability after integrating 2024 observations. The integration of recent high-resolution crop observations expands existing global CropFVC references and enables behavior-oriented interpretation of global FVC products beyond simple accuracy ranking, providing an updated validation perspective for future development and application of global CropFVC products in agricultural monitoring.
Analysis of the element composition of plant materials has many applications, including monitoring nutrient status, detecting biogeochemical indications of mineral deposits and assessing the effectiveness of phytoremediation in contaminated soils. Portable X-ray fluorescence spectroscopy (pXRF) delivers the advantage of real time in situ multi-elemental analysis at low cost, but calibration is affected by factors that include the water content of plant organs. The effect of variation in moisture content on pXRF-determined concentrations of heavy metals Zn, Fe, Cu, Sr and Th, and nutrient elements Si, S, K and Ca, have been evaluated using the foliage of A. imperialis, D. excelsa and A. macrorhiza through a controlled continuous drying experiments. A segmented linear relationship between pXRF measurements and moisture content was observed for most elements with a rapid decrease followed by a moderate decrease as moisture content increased. The position of the inflection point is dependent on leaf thickness and energy of the main X-ray peak measured. Calibration issues related to variation in moisture content comprises a combination of dilution and spectral interference effects. Dilution accounts for most of the underestimation of pXRF-determined concentrations for fresh plant samples compared with laboratory methods on dried samples. As moisture contents increase, the relative influence of spectral interferences decreases. The single-layer thickness of plant sample affects the position of inflection point of linearity and the relative contribution of spectral interference effect. This study provides new insights into the effect of moisture on pXRF-determined elemental concentrations and offers practical suggestions and recommendations for in situ analysis of plant samples using pXRF.
Among carnivorous plants, the Venus flytrap (Dionaea muscipula) is known for its rapid (<1 s) trap closure. Although buckling instability, hydrostatic pressure, and hydroelastic coupling have all been proposed to be involved, the nature of this process and the relationship between trap size and curvature remain elusive. Here, we monitored the closure of Venus flytraps and performed micro-CT scanning and 3D reconstruction, revealing that increasing angular velocity was correlated with higher values of a non-dimensional shape index. Based on these experimental data, we constructed a geometric model of the trap that takes leaf orientation into account. We found that leaf curvature is dependent on leaf size, a relationship we denote as a size-curvature constraint. We further propose a curvature design derived from differential deformations of a two-layer model of the leaf, which could be a powerful tool to control the curvatures of soft and bending surface structures in the field of biomimetics.
Reproduction assets foundThe paper's Data Availability statement points to an authors' GitHub page hosting all data files and related rendering files for the Venus flytrap closure measurements and 3D reconstructions, matching an allowed URL.Dataset · publicAll data files and related rendering files are available from the github ( https://satorutsugawa.github.io/flytrap_geometric_model_datashare/) .Open asset ↗githublines:105-144Plant phenotyping relevance matchOpenAlex · checked 15 Sept 2026
Abstract Crop mapping is one of the most frequent uses of yield monitor data in precision agriculture. Processing such data requires spatial interpolation to predict yields at unsampled locations. Ordinary kriging (OK) is the geostatistical interpolation method usually employed for mapping georeferenced data. In recent years, machine learning (ML) algorithms have gained attention for spatial interpolation tasks because of their ability to process large data volumes; however, their comparative performance for yield mapping at the field scale remains limited. This study compares the statistical behavior of ML methods, including quantile regression forest (QRF), generalized boosted regression models (GBM), extreme gradient boosting (XGB), and radial basis function neural networks (RBFNs) for processing yield monitor data. OK is applied as reference. To enhance the performance of ML algorithms for fine-scale yield mapping, covariates from the spatial neighborhood of sampled yield values were incorporated to predict yields at unsampled sites. Over 1,000 yield monitor datasets from multiple crop species were processed to assess algorithm performance. The ML methods—QRF, GBM, and XGB—demonstrated robust statistical performance, since they effectively handled large data volumes and improved spatial interpolation accuracy. The QRF method achieved the highest error reduction (on average, an 8.7% error reduction), was faster than OK, and generated high-quality uncertainty maps. GBM and XGB also performed better than OK. Coupled with spatial covariables, the studied ML algorithms are valuable alternatives to conventional kriging for yield mapping at the field scale.
The rapid and nondestructive classification of maize kernels is of great significance for seed screening and quality evaluation. Existing hyperspectral image classification methods based on the Mamba architecture can effectively represent spectral and spatial features; however, they still face limitations in time-frequency analysis and multimodal feature fusion. In addition, traditional approaches often rely heavily on spectral preprocessing, which may introduce additional errors and compromise the model's robustness and generalization ability. To address these challenges, this paper proposes a novel cross-modal classification framework named CD-TriMamba, which jointly leverages hyperspectral data and visible-light images for comprehensive feature extraction and deep fusion. Specifically, an innovative feature extraction module is designed, consisting of a Spectral Curvelet Convolution (SCC) module for hyperspectral data and a Curvelet-Decomposed Convolution (CDC) module for spatial modeling. A feature rearrangement mechanism is further introduced to mine critical information from both spectral and spatial modalities. Finally, a ConvNeXt-guided tri-branch cross-fusion structure (TriMamba) is constructed to achieve deep collaboration and efficient integration between spectral and spatial features. Experimental results demonstrate that the proposed model achieves outstanding performance in seed classification, with an accuracy (Acc) of 99.2% and a Kappa value of 99.1%. These results strongly confirm the effectiveness and broad application potential of cross-modal feature fusion in maize kernel classification.
Abstract Chlorophyll estimation is fundamental in plant physiology, crop management, and ecological studies; however, destructive and non-destructive methods are often interpreted interchangeably despite differing measurement principles. The present study compared four chlorophyll estimation approaches—two non-destructive (SPAD meter and GreenSeeker) and two destructive (80% acetone and DMSO extraction)—across eight crop species under uniform field conditions. Significant interspecific variation was observed for all methods. Correlation and regression analyses revealed generally weak relationships among methods, particularly between leaf-level (SPAD, solvent extraction) and canopy-level (GreenSeeker) measurements, reflecting scale-dependent behavior and methodological differences. Moderate associations were observed between SPAD and acetone-extracted chlorophyll for certain traits, whereas GreenSeeker showed poor agreement with solvent-based estimates. Differences between DMSO and acetone extraction further highlighted solvent-specific extraction efficiency. The results demonstrate that chlorophyll estimation methods are not directly interchangeable and should be selected based on study objectives, biological scale, and leaf anatomical characteristics. Species-specific calibration and integration of canopy structural parameters are required to improve cross-method interpretability.
Reproduction assets foundThe preprint declares that the datasets generated in this chlorophyll-method comparison study (SPAD, GreenSeeker, acetone and DMSO measurements across eight crop species) are publicly deposited in Figshare under DOI 10.6084/m9.figshare.31817989. This is a paper-specific, publicly actionable phenotype dataset. No authorDataset · publicThe datasets generated during the current study are available in the Figshare repository, https://doi.org/10.6084/m9.figshare.31817989Open asset ↗Figshare · 10.6084/m9.figshare.31817989lines:163-185Plant phenotyping relevance matchCrossref · checked 14 Sept 2026
Field / plotMultimodalWhole plant / canopy / plot / fieldClassification
California agriculture faces the combined pressures of severe drought, high crop-waste rates, and unaffordable commercial precision-agriculture platforms, which together disproportionately affect small and mid-sized growers. This paper proposes an integrated planthealth monitoring platform that combines a Raspberry-Pi field node for image capture and environmental sensing, a multimodal vision model for species identification and health assessment, and a Flutter mobile client that presents results to the grower through a simple dashboard. The client implements a layered fallback between the live Pi, an on-disk cache, and a bundled sample dataset so that it remains functional under intermittent connectivity, and it caches plant images transparently to accelerate repeated views. Two experiments evaluated the system: species identification reached 87.5 percent accuracy across four visually similar species, and time-to-first-paint ranged from 0.38 seconds on cached data to 1.34 seconds under degraded networks. The platform demonstrates that practical precision agriculture is achievable at consumer-hardware scale.
Abstract Context Downy mildew, caused by Plasmopara viticola , remains one of the most damaging diseases affecting grapevines, especially in humid viticultural regions such as the “Vinhos Verdes” in northern Portugal. Traditional detection relies on visual inspection and laboratory techniques, which are subjective and reactive, often delaying effective intervention. Aims This study aims to evaluate the potential of field spectroscopy combined with machine learning to detect downy mildew in Vitis vinifera cv. Loureiro field conditions. The focus is on providing an early, non-destructive detection method that can be used in precision viticulture, reducing the need for costly, widespread pesticide applications. Methods and Key Results Leaf spectral reflectance data were collected along the 2023 and 2024 growing seasons using a portable spectroradiometer. Measurements were obtained from both untreated and fungicide-treated grapevines, covering different infection stages. Spectral signatures from 600 grapevine leaves were used to train and validate classification models using Partial Least Squares Linear Discriminant Analysis (PLS-LDA) and Random Forest (RF) models. Both RF and PLS-LDA models showed an overall accuracy of 95.1% when trained with all spectral features from the dataset. Red edge (700–750 nm) and visible (400–700 nm) wavelengths demonstrated the highest classification contribution. Moreover, the twenty most informative wavelengths for infection discrimination were identified for each model. Conclusion The results confirm the effectiveness of field spectroscopy, making it possible to detect downy mildew symptoms in different stages of infection. This method offers a rapid, cost-effective, and sustainable tool for early disease detection, which can greatly benefit winegrowers by enabling more timely and specific interventions and reducing the reliance on chemical treatments. Implications and Impacts This study demonstrates a novel approach to precision viticulture, offering winegrowers a rapid, cost-effective, and sustainable tool for early disease detection. The methodology not only promotes more disease management strategies but also aligns with environmental and regulatory goals.
Black locust (Robinia pseudoacacia L.) is a key tree species globally and in Hungary, valued for its economic benefits, adaptability, and ecosystem services. Despite its invasiveness and susceptibility to frost damage, its high-quality timber and significant nectar production make it economically important. This research, conducted as a collaboration between the Hungarian Forest Research Institute and the University of Debrecen, aimed to evaluate the applicability of remote sensing technologies in supporting black locust (Robinia pseudoacacia L.) research and monitoring efforts. A clonal trial established in 2020 in eastern Hungary aimed to assess the performance of newly bred black locust clones. Tree height was measured using both conventional ground-based methods and photogrammetric analysis of unmanned aerial system (UAS) data, enabling comparison between the two approaches. Tree vitality was evaluated through UAS-based multispectral analysis using vegetation indices, including NDVI, GNDVI, NDRE, and LCI. Our findings revealed no significant differences (p>0.05) between UAS-based and traditional height measurements, confirming UAS as a reliable tool. Clones »NK2« and »PL251« showed superior growth (height of 7.6 m and 7.4 m) and health, while »Üllői« cultivar performed the weakest (5.3 m). Strong correlations were found between some vegetation indices (NDRE and LCI) and tree heights (r=0.593 and r=0.587), emphasizing the potential of remote sensing in efficient forest management. This study highlights the value of integrating UAS technology in forestry, offering cost-effective, accurate and comprehensive data for improving black locust cultivation practices.
Abstract Artificial Intelligence and Machine Learning rely on large, high-quality datasets for accurate and robust models, yet data scarcity remains a major challenge, especially in smart farming. Phenology modeling, a key application, studies how plant biological events relate to climate and seasons. Accurate phenology models improve crop quality, support climate adaptation, and guide decisions such as pesticide use and harvesting, enhancing environmental and economic sustainability. However, agricultural data are highly diverse and heterogeneous, complicating model development. This study presents a proposed georeferenced dataset for Machine Learning-based grapevine phenology prediction across 3 Protected Designations of Origin in Aragón, Spain. Developed by a multidisciplinary team, the dataset combines 9 datasets from 8 sources (including meteorological time series, field phenology observations, and Copernicus Sentinel-2 multispectral imagery) covering the period 2016–2022. It supports both physical and Machine Learning-based phenology modeling and facilitates knowledge extraction in agronomy and plant biology. Its relevance lies in its comprehensive scope, the inclusion of 9 phenological stages, and a rigorous methodology ensuring reproducibility. This framework enables the creation of similar datasets for other regions or crops, advancing smart farming through scalable, data-driven solutions. The open publication of the code further supports this objective. We further anticipate its potential contribution to developing foundation models as well as to the creation of new knowledge in biology and agronomy.
This article presents the development and experimental study of a compact, automated apple sorting machine based on computer vision, indirect fruit weight estimation, and color grading. It is designed for use in small and medium-sized farms, where the use of industrial lines is limited by high cost and complex maintenance. The proposed machine enables non-destructive assessing and sorting of apples in a continuous flow mode without the use of mechanical weighing, includes a fruit feeding and positioning module, a computer vision system, an image processing unit, and a sorting actuator synchronized with the conveyor movement. Fruit weight and color assessment is based on visual geometric parameters (diameter, fruit height, projected area, and the proportion of surface color), extracted from digital images, followed by classification by product category using regression models. As part of the experimental study, a correlation analysis was conducted between the actual weight of apples and their geometric parameters for five varieties typical of Kazakhstan. It was shown that the projected fruit area exhibits the most stable correlation with weight, justifying its use as the primary predictor in constructing a regression model for indirect weight estimation. An assessment of the accuracy of apple classification by product categories was carried out and the influence of conveyor speed on the stability and correctness of sorting was observed. The experimental results with a total 1250 apples of five varieties - Aport Alexander, Sinap Almaty, Kazakhski Yubileinyi, Ainur, and Nursat indicated that the optimal operating mode for the machine is an apple transport speed of 0.16 m/s. In this mode, sorting throughput is approximately 400 kg/hour, with an average accuracy of 92% for the automatic classification in accordance with GOST requirements. These results confirm that the proposed approach provides sufficient real-time sorting accuracy with a simple machine design. The machine can be used as a standalone sorting solution, as well as a base platform for further expansion of functionality by integrating surface defect assessment and grade identification modules.
Nodule color and morphology are key readouts of legume symbiotic performance. However, long-term preservation of post-excavation nodules with intact morphology, color, and microbial cleanliness remains a major challenge. This study developed a two-stage aqueous-phase preservation method (TAPP) that enables rapid structural fixation and long-term chemical stabilization. A comprehensive evaluation was subsequently established, incorporating composite morphological score (0-5), color difference (ΔE) and its piecewise slope over time ([Formula: see text]), and visible contamination grade (0-3). Peanut and soybean nodules from multiple regions and cultivars were tracked for 24 months under five preservation methods: TAPP, FormalinCu, TAPP-Resin, Resin, and AirDry. TAPP showed the best overall preservation, with composite morphological scores of 4.65 ± 0.14 for peanut and 4.63 ± 0.22 for soybean at 24 months, and no visible mold. Color change slowed over time: [Formula: see text] decreased from 1.83 to 1.10 ΔE·month - 1 during 0-1 month to 0.16 ΔE·month - 1 during 12-24 months, yielding final ΔE values of 10.53 ± 1.88 and 10.32 ± 1.93, respectively. Notably, TAPP pretreatment markedly improved resin-embedded samples, demonstrating scalability and flexible deployment. In addition, this study further proposes a stage-wise workflow that integrates on-site pre-fixation, long-distance transport, and long-term storage to enable cross-regional circulation and collaborative phenomics of oxidation-prone, dehydration-sensitive nodules. Together, this work establishes a standardized, traceable workflow to preserve and benchmark legume root nodule phenotypes, supporting cross-laboratory comparability and longitudinal cross-source analyses.
Accurately estimating leaf area index (LAI) is vital for evaluating crop growth and predicting yields. Conventional approaches, however, often struggle due to the limited representativeness of available data and the complex structure of plant canopies, which reduce their reliability across diverse canopy architectures and observation conditions. To overcome these challenges, this work introduces an LAI retrieval framework that combines a three-dimensional radiative transfer model (3D RTM) with deep learning techniques. Representative 3D maize canopy scenarios were generated using the LESS model, producing synthetic LiDAR point clouds constrained by realistic structural parameters. A deep learning model based on PointNet++ was trained, and transfer learning (TL) was employed to facilitate knowledge transfer from simulated to actual measured data. The TL-enhanced model demonstrated significant improvement, with R2 rising from 0.537 to 0.842 and RMSE dropping from 0.541 to 0.288 m2·m−2. Moreover, retrieval performance was notably affected by scanning mode, angle, and stem diameter, achieving optimal results under TLS acquisition, moderate scanning angles, and intermediate stem widths. These findings suggest that integrating 3D RTM-generated synthetic point clouds with transfer learning is an effective strategy for enhancing the robustness and generalization of LiDAR-based LAI retrieval.
Reproduction assets foundThe paper's field-measured LiDAR point cloud and LAI data (Yingke Oasis and Huazhaizi sites) come from a publicly accessible TPDC dataset with an explicit URL in the Data Availability Statement. No author analysis code, trained models, or synthetic dataset deposit is stated.Dataset · public2024WX06.
Data Availability Statement: The dataset used in this study was obtained from the National Tibetan
Plateau Data Center (TPDC, https://www.tpdc.ac.cn/ (accessed on 6 September 2025)), a publicly
accessible scientific data platform providing multi-source geoscientific datasets. The specific dataset
can be accessed via: https://www.tpdc.ac.cn/zh-hans/data/4d60d570-0aa9-417b-8a9d-c32b73b564
(accessed on 6 September 2025). The TPDC database integrates long-term observational and remote
sensing data with standardized quality control, ensuring the reliability and consistency of the datasets
for scientific research.
Acknowledgments: The authors would like to acknowledge the National TibetaOpen asset ↗4d60d570-0aa9-417b-8a9d-c32b73b564pdf-raw-page:19 lines:1-51Code / dataset availability confirmedEurope PMC · checked 8 Sept 2026
Pinheiro I, Moura P, Rodrigues L, Moreira G, Coutinho RM, Terra F, Valente A, Cunha M, Santos FND.
Field / plotMultimodalWhole plant / canopy / plot / fieldClassificationCountingGrowth / development / phenology
Phenological monitoring of Actinidia chinensis is critical for optimising operational costs and yield prediction. However, current manual assessment methods are time-consuming, making them impractical for large-scale precision agriculture applications. Most existing phenological datasets focus exclusively on image data without spatial validation. The Multi-Modal Actinidia chinensis Phenology Dataset is composed of (i) 1 665 annotated images of phenological stages from bud to fruit set and (ii) georeferenced videos with systematic manual ground truth of spatial stage distributions. The dataset employs an adapted 17-class BBCH system that consolidates visually similar stages, excludes problematic categories, and introduces generic structural classes to address practical annotation difficulties. Additionally, the data is organised hierarchically across various plant structures, genders, and phenological stages. The annotated images offer versatility for a range of applications, including training data for computer vision models to detect phenological stages. Furthermore, the georeferenced videos facilitate the validation of automated counting algorithms. This combined approach enables plant-level detection accuracy and provides an illustrative methodology for spatial validation that users can extend to additional orchards, promoting the development and benchmarking of automated phenological monitoring systems for precision agriculture applications in kiwifruit production.
Reproduction assets foundThe paper describes a public multi-modal Actinidia chinensis phenology dataset (annotated images, georeferenced videos, ground-truth counts) deposited on Zenodo, plus authors' MIT-licensed preprocessing scripts on GitHub. CVAT and FiftyOne are generic third-party tools and excluded.Dataset · publicThe Multi-Modal Actinidia chinensis Phenology Dataset described in this Data Descriptor is publicly available
at Zenodo: https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.17371025.Open asset ↗Zenodo · 10.5281/zenodo.17371025pdf-page:12 lines:1-92Code · publicCustom scripts for dataset preparation are publicly available under the MIT License at https://github.com/Open asset ↗GitHubpdf-page:12 lines:1-92Plant phenotyping relevance matchEurope PMC · checked 5 Sept 2026
The rapid and accurate quantification of plant phosphorus (P) content is essential for the real-time assessment of crop P status and improvement of P fertilizer use efficiency. However, non-destructive and rapid approaches for P monitoring are limited. In this study, the feasibility of monitoring plant phosphorus content (PPC) in winter wheat was evaluated through multi-source feature fusion of unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV) imagery based on a long-term field experiment with five P treatments. Multiple spectral features, including color indices (CIs), fractional vegetation cover (FVC), vegetation indices (VIs), texture features (TFs) and texture indices (TIs), were extracted from UAV RGB and multispectral images. Sensitive spectral features were systematically screened using Pearson correlation analysis, random forest (RF) importance ranking, and the Relief algorithm. Selected features were then fed into three machine learning models, RF, support vector machine (SVM), and k-nearest neighbor (KNN) to predict PPC. The results showed that GRI, VARI, MGRVI, TGI, NDRE, and CIred edge were highly correlated with PPC at the maturity stage (r = 0.96). Both TFs and TIs demonstrated stronger correlations with PPC at the 750 and 840 nm bands, with most TIs outperforming TFs, confirming the feasibility of spectral-based PPC estimation. Based on the selected input variables including DTI (450-Ent, 750-Mea), 840-Mea, and RVI, the SVM model achieved the best performance (R 2 c=0.94, RMSEc=0.29, RPDc=4.03; R 2 v=0.92, RMSEv=0.36, RPDv=3.48). These results highlight the potential of combining VIs, TFs, and TIs features for training machine learning models for PPC prediction, while the organ-level physiological explanations warrantee further investigations under controlled P gradients. This study provides data-driven insights for UAV-based monitoring of plant P nutritional status under local experimental conditions.
Accurate estimation of leaf SPAD is crucial for maize growth and yield formation. Many methods for monitoring SPAD currently lack the analysis of sensitive leaf position in different stages of maize. In this paper, the spectra and temporal-spatial characteristics of maize leaf SPAD were analyzed to describe the sensitive stage and leaf position. After exploring the dynamic growth effects of SPAD in maize leaves, the sensitive stage of SPAD was determine. Several preprocessing methods and spectral vegetation indices were used to analyze the spectral reflectance of typical leaf positions in sensitive stages. The function regression methods based on single vegetation index and the random forest regression (RFR) based on multi-vegetation indices were employed. The results showed that the twelve-leaf (V12) and the silking (R1) were the sensitive stages. The strongest RVI at the V12 stage and NDRE for the ear leaves at the R1 stage were observed under SG-SNV method. The best prediction data ( R 2 = 0.7) was showed at the V12 stage under MSC-RF. The prediction effect of the ear leaves after MSC pretreatment was slightly better ( R 2 = 0.69). In addition, SPAD value can indirectly reflect the chlorophyll content, nitrogen content and yield status of maize leaves, and its accurate monitoring provides effective guidance for maize leaf nutrition information and yield prediction.
Introduction Accurate monitoring of canopy nitrogen content is essential for sustainable nitrogen management, yield improvement, and environmental protection in industrial maize production. However, the high dimensionality of hyperspectral data and the limited accuracy and interpretability of existing models hinder practical applications. Methods This study was conducted in Heilongjiang Province, China, using the maize cultivar Jinboshi. Genetic Algorithm (GA), Successive Projections Algorithm (SPA), and their hybrid strategy were compared for spectral band optimization. Sensitive vegetation indices were selected using multiple evaluation criteria, and a 0-2 order fractional-order derivative (FOD) method was applied to construct optimal two-dimensional (2D) and three-dimensional (3D) spectral indices. A stacked ensemble learning model was developed using XGBoost, GBDT, and Ridge as base learners and Bayesian Ridge as the meta-learner. Interpretability techniques were applied to analyze feature contributions. Results The GA-SPA hybrid strategy effectively improved key spectral band selection. The 3D spectral index based on FOD achieved superior performance compared to vegetation indices and 2D indices (R 2 p = 0.801, RMSEP = 0.481). The optimized multi-source feature set combined with the stacked ensemble model yielded the best performance (R 2 p = 0.826, RMSEP = 0.450). Features from the red-edge and near-infrared regions, along with the 3D index, were the primary contributors to model predictions, consistent with plant nitrogen physiology. Discussion The proposed framework, integrating feature optimization, advanced modeling, and interpretability analysis, provides an effective tool for precise nitrogen management in industrial maize and supports improved production efficiency with reduced environmental impact.
Background The BBCH scale (Biologische Bundesanstalt, Bundessortenamt und Chemieindustrie) is a fundamental tool for standardizing plant phenological observations. As apple production shifts towards high-density dwarf orchard systems to enhance yield and facilitate mechanization, a significant gap exists in a unified phenological description framework for dwarfing rootstock apple trees, particularly under desert climate conditions. This study aims to systematically characterize the phenological growth stages of dwarf-rootstock apple using an extended BBCH scale to support precision orchard management. Result In our study, phenological monitoring was carried out systematically through the utilization of optical observation equipment and manual observations throughout the entire growth cycles. The extended BBCH scale with a three-digit coding system was applied, where the first digit indicates the principal growth stage (0-9), the second digit represents a mesostage (1 for spring, 2 for autumn growth), and the third digit describes secondary stages (0-9). We described and illustrated eight main growth stages: bud development (stage 0), leaf development (stage 1), shoot development (stage 3), inflorescence emergence (stage 5), flowering (stage 6), fruit development (stage 7), fruit ripening period (stage 8), and senescence and beginning of dormancy (stage 9). A total of 43 secondary stages were defined. Crucially, mesostages were introduced to differentiate the distinct spring and autumn vegetative growth flushes characteristic of the bimodal growth pattern observed under desert conditions. Conclusions The developed three-digit BBCH scale offers a standardized and refined framework for monitoring apple phenology in high-density dwarf orchards. It serves as a vital tool for optimizing the timing of key agronomic practices like irrigation, fertilization, pruning, and pest control, thereby supporting the intelligent implementation of precision agriculture. This framework effectively standardizes phenological observations across diverse environments, laying a foundation for improved yield, fruit quality, and sustainable orchard management.
Wei Wen · Chao Yue · Bingming Chen · Xianhui Tang · Yabo Wang · Wajid Ali Khattak · Xin Song
Stem / branchPhysiological trait estimationWater status / transpiration
Abstract. Recent studies have reported widespread presence of hydrogen isotope offset (HIO) between cryogenically-extracted plant stem and soil water, challenging the long-standing assumption that the isotopic composition of stem xylem water reliably represents that of its source water. Despite intensive researches on this topic over the past decade, it remains debated as to whether and/or to what extent HIO originates from extraction-related artifacts or from in situ isotope mixing/fractionation during water transport from soil to plants. Here, we used cryogenic vacuum distillation (CVD) to extract stem and soil water from eight species (trees, shrubs, and grasses) grown under two humidity regimes. We quantified species-specific HIO, tested its associations with ecophysiological and environmental variables, and conducted immersion-based rehydration experiments to assess CVD-induced biases. Across species, HIO ranged from −7.2‰ to 3.2‰: trees were consistently negative, whereas shrubs and grasses were near-zero to slightly positive. Rehydration experiments revealed CVD-induced δ2H biases in stem (−4.5‰) and soil water (−2.5‰). When these extraction-related biases in both stem and soil water were simultaneously corrected, species-level HIO (mean = 0.2‰) was no longer different from zero, and showed no significant correlations with ecophysiological or environmental variables. These results suggest that apparent HIO is largely driven by CVD-induced artifacts rather than ecophysiological/environmental processes that cause isotopic fractionation during water transport along the soil-xylem continuum. We conclude that simultaneously correcting CVD-induced biases in both stem and soil water is critical to avoid spurious HIO signals and to improve isotope-based estimation of plant water sources.
Ensuring global food security under rapid climate change demands accelerated genetic gain and breeding strategies that address complex Genotype-by-Environment (G×E) interactions. Traditional genomic selection models often fail to account for novel or extreme climates.Furthermore, integrating mechanistic crop growth models (CGMs) using traditional Bayesian frameworks to solve this issue presents severe computational bottlenecks. Here, we introduce DeepBioGS, a novel hybrid framework that integrates genomic selection with biophysical growth modelling via a fully differentiable deep learning architecture. DeepBioGS utilises a parameter-prediction multi-layer perceptron to map high-dimensional genomic markers to latent, highly heritable physiological traits (Genotype-Specific Parameters; GSP). These parameters mechanistically predict crop phenology across diverse environments. Using two multi-environment wheat datasets comprising over 6,000 genotypes, DeepBioGS extracted latent traits with near-perfect SNP-based heritability values (0.95-1.00). Crucially, the framework demonstrated superior or comparable predictive accuracy (up to r 2 = 0.77) against standard genomic best linear unbiased prediction (GBLUP) and traditional Bayesian CGM-WGP models. Its architecture drastically improved computational scalability by enabling standard backpropagation, effectively bypassing the stochastic sampling limitations of approximate Bayesian methods. Most importantly for climate adaptation, DeepBioGS allowed accurate forecasting of genotype performance in entirely unobserved environmental conditions. By merging the representational power of deep learning with the structural constraints of biophysics, DeepBioGS provides a highly scalable, interpretable tool to navigate G×E interactions, enabling the assessment of cultivars under future climate scenarios, thus optimising crop breeding for a changing global environment.
Accurate characterization of closely related Ilex taxa is essential for the conservation, documentation, and utilization of plant genetic resources. In this study, five Ilex taxa from eastern China ( Ilex rotunda Thunb., Ilex chinensis , Ilex cornuta Lindl. & Paxt., Ilex cornuta 'Fortunei', and Ilex latifolia Thunb.) were evaluated using an integrated framework combining fruit morphometric traits, CIELAB color parameters, and electronic-nose (E-nose) volatile fingerprints. Fruit transverse diameter, longitudinal diameter, single-fruit weight, fruit shape index, and peel color traits (L*, a*, b*, and chroma, C*) differed significantly among taxa (one-way ANOVA, all p I . cornuta produced the largest and heaviest fruits, I . chinensis showed the most elongated fruit shape, and I . rotunda exhibited the highest redness and chroma values. Chemometric analyses of E-nose responses further improved taxon discrimination and revealed clear divergence in volatile-response patterns. Trait-space relationships were broadly consistent with the preset phylogenetic framework, with I . rotunda showing the greatest divergence and I . cornuta and I . cornuta 'Fortunei' showing the closest similarity. These findings indicate that integrated fruit phenotyping and rapid volatile profiling provide a practical approach for Ilex germplasm identification, comparative evaluation, and resource documentation, with potential value for conservation planning and horticultural utilization.
Rhizosphere oxidation is a key adaptive mechanism in reductive soil environments, in which oxygen released from roots alters rhizosphere redox conditions and regulates biogeochemical processes. Rice plants possess an internal oxygen transport system, and radial oxygen loss (ROL) from roots is closely associated with root development. However, the spatial patterns of ROL in soil and their relationships with root traits remain poorly characterized. In this study, we developed a multimodal imaging system that integrates planar oxygen optodes with X-ray computed tomography to simultaneously visualize rhizosphere oxidation and root development in rice. Daily time-course tracking of individual crown roots revealed dynamic changes in the spatial distribution and magnitude of rhizosphere oxygen in relation to root elongation and aging. Root thickness was positively correlated with dissolved oxygen levels near root tips. Genotypic comparisons further identified a cultivar with reduced rhizosphere oxidation despite possessing thicker roots among the tested genotypes, thereby indicating the involvement of additional physiological processes. Overall, these findings demonstrate that rhizosphere oxidation is regulated by root growth stage and thickness and dynamically modulated during root development.
To achieve high-precision and high-efficiency estimation of the Leaf Area Index (LAI) of jujube trees using drone remote sensing, and to overcome the limitations of traditional vegetation index methods, such as saturation in the later stages of crop growth, sensitivity to background noise, and difficulty in capturing temporal dynamics, this study proposes a parallel hybrid deep learning framework using CNN-GRU. The model adaptively extracts spatial-spectral local features from drone RGB images through a convolutional neural network (CNN) branch, while a gated recurrent unit (GRU) branch learns the sequential evolution of LAI during key phenological periods. Finally, a meta-learner integrates spatial-temporal information for decision-making. To verify the model's effectiveness and prediction performance, the study systematically collected multi-temporal ground-measured LAI data and synchronized drone remote sensing images during critical growth stages of jujube trees in two independent years: 2024 (Bachu, Xinjiang) and 2025 (Alaer, Xinjiang). A series of spectral and texture indices were extracted as model inputs. The experimental results show that the proposed CNN-GRU model exhibits excellent learning and fitting capabilities on the training set, with an R 2 value of 0.839. On the test set, after optimization with data augmentation strategies, the model's prediction accuracy is significantly improved, with prediction accuracy reaching its best level, with an R 2 of 0.83 and an RMSE of 0.150. All error metrics outperform mainstream comparative models such as Transformer, KNN, MLP, and CNN. This study demonstrates that the hybrid deep learning architecture, combining spatial feature extraction and time-series modeling, is an effective approach for accurate and robust remote sensing inversion of crop LAI in complex agricultural scenarios, providing a reliable technical tool for the digital management of smart orchards and precise agricultural decision-making.
AppleField / plotRGB / grayscaleFruitClassificationObject detectionSegmentationGrowth / development / phenology
This article presents a comprehensive dataset of 1406 RGB images of apples ( Malus domestica ), covering three key growth stages-immature (green), semi-mature (color transition), and mature (red). The dataset serves as a resource for detecting and segmenting apples across different developmental phases. Each image includes pixel-level instance segmentation masks annotated in JSON format using the VGG Image Annotator (VIA), ensuring compatibility with deep learning frameworks. The dataset's real-world variability-spanning lighting conditions, occlusions, and clustered fruit arrangements-enhances its utility for training generalizable computer vision models in precision agriculture. It supports tasks such as fruit detection, segmentation and growth-stage classification, addressing the scarcity of annotated data for transitional maturity phases. With 2574 annotated apple instances, this dataset facilitates research on maturity grading and transfer learning for agricultural robotics. By standardizing annotations and incorporating diverse field conditions, this dataset reduces preprocessing overhead and accelerates the development of deployable AI solutions for orchard management. It is particularly valuable for improving model robustness in heterogeneous environments, thereby advancing data-driven horticultural practices.
Reproduction assets foundThe paper is a data descriptor for a public apple image dataset (1406 RGB images, pixel-level instance segmentation masks in JSON) deposited on Mendeley Data with a direct URL and DOI, matching the allowed URL exactly.Dataset · publicRepository name: Wang, Dandan; Wang, Bo (2026), “A Multi-Stage, Pixel-Level Annotated Apple Dataset for Precision Agriculture Research”, Mendeley Data, V4
Data identification number: 10.17632/gfcmdbvw65.4
Direct URL to data:https://data.mendeley.com/datasets/gfcmdbvw65/4Open asset ↗Mendeley Data · 10.17632/gfcmdbvw65.4html-lines:1-97Plant phenotyping relevance matchEurope PMC · checked 7 Sept 2026
Vidal-Tur M, Martín-Ruiz M, Torimtubun AAA, Campoy-Quiles M, Martínez-García JF.
ArabidopsisStem / branchPhysiological trait estimationGrowth / development / phenology
ABSTRACT Agriphotovoltaics (APV) combines crop production with solar energy generation to address increasing demands for food and energy while reducing land-use competition. Unlike conventional opaque photovoltaic systems, semitransparent organic photovoltaics (OPVs) selectively absorb light, potentially improving efficiency but also altering both light quantity and spectral quality, key factors affecting plant growth. Here, we developed a rapid bioassay based on hypocotyl elongation to evaluate plant responses to OPV-filtered light using Arabidopsis thaliana and Cardamine hirsuta , two species with contrasting shade strategies. Screening a diverse set of OPV materials revealed that plant growth responses depend more on spectral composition than on total light intensity alone. Certain materials, such as PTB7-Th and D18, produced growth patterns similar to neutral shading, while others promoted elongation. Our analyses identified blue light wavelengths, linked to cryptochrome activity, as more critical than red light wavelengths, linked to phytochrome activity, for maintaining normal development. These findings provide a scalable framework to assess OPV-plant compatibility and demonstrate that optimizing spectral quality alongside light intensity is essential for designing efficient APV systems that sustain crop performance while generating renewable energy.
Soybean protein content is a key indicator of nutritional value and quality grade, and its determination is important for quality evaluation and cultivar selection. To overcome the time-consuming and costly limitations of conventional chemical assays, this study proposed a multiple linear learner ensemble importance-score wavelength selection (MLLEISWS) method to identify informative wavelengths from soybean near-infrared spectra and establish a partial least squares (PLS) model. MLLEISWS was compared with competitive adaptive reweighted sampling, successive projections algorithm, and uninformative variable elimination. Shapley additive exPlanations (SHAP) were applied to the MLLEISWS algorithm to interpret the selected wavelengths. Results showed that the PLS model developed using MLLEISWS achieved the best performance. With only 29 selected wavelengths, the coefficients of determination for the training and test sets reached 0.941 and 0.933, respectively. Root mean square errors were 0.490% and 0.514%, relative root mean square errors were 1.32% and 1.37%, and residual predictive deviation was 3.863, indicating predictive accuracy and stability. SHAP analysis showed that the selected wavelengths were located in protein-related spectral regions and corresponded to overtone and combination bands information from functional groups. MLLEISWS effectively reduced variable dimensionality while maintaining model performance.
Marco Resecco · Hongyoung Jeon · Heping Zhu · Fabrizio Gioelli · Lingying Zhao · Erdal Özkan · Marco Grella
GrapevineField / plotStereoWhole plant / canopy / plot / field
• A stereovision-controlled variable-rate sprayer was tested over three growth stages • Spray volume, canopy deposit, coverage, airborne and ground drift were assessed • Spray volume was up to 79.6% less than constant-rate spray application • Higher canopy deposit and coverage was achieved at middle and late growth stages • Growth stage strongly influenced spray volume, canopy deposit, and spray losses Optimizing spray application efficiency in 3D crops remains a major challenge due to the spatial and temporal variability of canopy structure. Variable-rate spray (VRS) technologies have emerged as a promising solution to address this limitation by adapting spray output to canopy characteristics. Stereo vision systems have recently gained attention as a cost-effective real-time canopy detection sensor. Despite encouraging results, previous research has been conducted with prototype sprayers. In this study, a commercial airblast sprayer retrofitted with a stereo vision controlled spray system was evaluated and compared with a constant-rate spray (CRS) application across three grapevine growth stages (BBCH 53, 57, and 77). Spray volume, canopy deposit, spray coverage, airborne drift, and ground drift were assessed. The VRS application reduced spray volume by 79.6% and 43.0% at the early and middle growth stages, respectively, whereas a 22.0% increase was observed at the late growth stage compared with CRS application. Despite the spray volume reduction at the early growth stage, canopy deposit and spray coverage decreased to a lesser extent. At the middle and late growth stages, canopy deposit and spray coverage were higher with VRS application than with CRS application. Airborne and ground drift were reduced by 29.3% and 48.9%, respectively, at the early growth stage. At the middle growth stage, airborne drift increased by 44.0% while ground losses decreased by 23.0%. At the late growth stage, airborne and ground drift increased by 30.9% and 55.9%, respectively. Despite promising results, further optimization of spray dose according to canopy development is required.
Conventional two-dimensional image-based methods are limited in measuring the three-dimensional morphology of tobacco stems, especially thickness and curved geometry. This study proposes a point-cloud-based method for three-dimensional tobacco stem measurement using a dual-laser scanning system. The method combines improved centerline skeleton extraction, upper–lower surface registration, and skeleton-guided cross-sectional analysis to estimate length, width, thickness, and fineness. Adaptive neighborhood re-weighting and curvature-constrained regularization are introduced to improve skeleton extraction, and reference-assisted registration is used to support thickness measurement. For a standard gauge block, the proposed method achieved mean absolute errors below 0.009 mm and root mean square errors below 0.011 mm for length, width, and thickness measurements. Validation on 30 tobacco stem samples showed good agreement with the YC image-based method for length and width, with correlation coefficients of 0.998 and 0.997, respectively. The results demonstrate the feasibility of thickness-aware three-dimensional morphological measurement of tobacco stems under the tested conditions.
Given the increasing frequency, severity, and socioecological impacts of wildfires, there is an urgent need for robust frameworks to better characterize fire behavior and flammability patterns across ecosystems to support early warning, mitigation, and management strategies. However, flammability remains difficult to quantify and scale, as it involves multiple interacting components that are typically measured at the bench scale. This study aimed to establish empirical links between spectral information, plant traits, and flammability metrics, and to scale these relationships to satellite imagery to translate these metrics into a spatial context. We combined laboratory spectroscopy, plant trait measurements including leaf mass per area, carbon, and cellulose, and combustion experiments using a simple and reproducible burning device. In total, 84 samples were collected and analysed, allowing us to characterise how spectral signatures relate to vegetation traits and fire behaviour. Spectral indices were developed to estimate plant traits, which were subsequently used as predictors in flammability models. These models were then transferred to Environmental Mapping and Analysis Program (EnMAP) hyperspectral imagery to derive spatial estimates across eucalypt forests and grasslands of the Australian Capital Territory (ACT). Spectral information distinguished fuel types and captured variability of the plant traits, while these traits showed associations with combustion behaviour. Based on these links, the best-performing model predicted the rate of temperature increase, a combustibility metric, in eucalypt forests (R2 = 0.70; Root Mean Square Error = 32.48 °C/s). In contrast, grassland models showed limited predictive performance, likely due to weaker relationships between plant traits and flammability metrics. Overall, this study demonstrates a practical and scalable approach for deriving flammability maps from hyperspectral and in situ data, highlighting the potential of plant-trait-based remote sensing. The resulting maps should not be interpreted as standalone fire risk products, but rather as a characterization of the structural and biochemical drivers of flammability. The main constraint of this work is the limited sample size. Future research should expand spatial and temporal coverage to better capture vegetation variability and enable the inclusion of independent validation datasets. Exploring alternative combustion protocols and testing more advanced spectral modelling approaches for trait estimation would provide additional insights.
Reproduction assets foundThe paper's supplementary materials (hosted publicly by MDPI) contain the paper-specific plant phenotype measurements: sampled species lists, fractional cover, and measured vegetation traits across dates and plots, plus combustion replicate variability and trait–flammability relationship data. The raw underlying data,谱Supplement · publicbroader environmental coverage, improved plant trait retrieval meth-
ods, and independent validation. Future work should also explore non-linear modelling
frameworks to better capture the complexity of vegetation flammability across ecosystems.
Supplementary Materials: The following supporting information can be downloaded at:
https://www.mdpi.com/article/10.3390/rs18101546/s1, Supplementary Table S1 provides the list of
sampled plant species and their percentage cover across sites, paddocks, plots, and fuel types; Table
S2 presents the fractional cover of each species and litter component; Figure S1 shows the study-site
vegetation map; Figures S2–S6 show the measured vegetation traits acrosOpen asset ↗pdf-raw-page:22 lines:1-49Plant phenotyping relevance matchCrossref · checked 13 Sept 2026
Leaf Area Index (LAI) is a key biophysical parameter for characterizing terrestrial vegetation dynamics and land surface processes. Time-series MODIS LAI products are widely used in ecological and land-related research, but cloud contamination and sensor noise lead to widespread spatio-temporal gaps, limiting their ability to support long-term, consistent vegetation monitoring over large areas. To address this issue, this study proposes a novel self-supervised LAI reconstruction framework (SSLAI) for generating gap-free and ecologically consistent LAI datasets across China. The framework integrates cross-modal environmental fusion, multi-scale spatio-temporal modeling, and adaptive phenological constraints to ensure the reconstructed LAI aligns with realistic vegetation growth rhythms. SSLAI outperforms seven traditional and state-of-the-art deep learning methods, maintaining a root mean square error (RMSE) below 0.20 even with 16 missing time windows. Field validation confirms its high accuracy, with a coefficient of determination (R2) of 0.885 and an RMSE of 0.477. Furthermore, SSLAI’s response to meteorological changes aligns with ecological principles, demonstrating favorable physical interpretability and ecological rationality. The reconstructed LAI exhibits superior spatial completeness and temporal consistency compared with MODIS, VIIRS, and GLASS products, and performs robustly under variable climatic conditions. This study provides an effective self-supervised solution for MODIS LAI gap-filling over large regions, and the generated high-quality LAI dataset can serve as a reliable data foundation for vegetation dynamics monitoring, land surface modeling, and global change research.
Crop attribute detection, as a key component of intelligent agricultural harvesting machinery, plays a crucial role in harvesting efficiency, loss reduction, and autonomous operation control. Compared with existing reviews on artificial intelligence and sensing technologies in agriculture, this review focuses on crop attribute detection scenarios oriented toward the intelligent decision-making and control requirements of agricultural harvesting machinery. It mainly analyzes crop attributes that affect harvesting operations, as well as the sensors and algorithms involved in detecting these attributes, and further clarifies the relationship between detection methods and control decisions in agricultural harvesting machinery. For grain crops, the key attributes relevant to harvesting operations include plant height, plant density, spike number, crop lodging, canopy structure, and crop position. For fruit and vegetable crops, the key attributes relevant to harvesting operations include maturity, position, and quality. From the perspectives of multi-source data acquisition, data analysis, and attribute detection algorithms, the key technologies in the field of crop attribute detection are systematically summarized and analyzed, including sensors used in crop attribute detection, such as RGB, spectral, near-infrared, and LiDAR sensors, as well as data analysis and recognition approaches, such as image classification, object detection, and point cloud analysis. The complexity of field environments and the dynamics of machine operation are analyzed, highlighting the technical bottlenecks of current detection systems in environmental adaptability, real-time responsiveness, and resistance to interference. To address these challenges, feasible optimization directions were proposed, including multi-sensor fusion, weakly supervised learning, and few-shot learning. This review aims to provide systematic references and theoretical support for the coordinated development of crop detection and control decision-making in intelligent agricultural harvesting systems.
Introduction: Recent technological advances in high resolution image capture and analysis have led to increased adoption of high-throughput digital phenotyping in plant science research. High-throughput digital phenotyping provides a nondestructive method to quantify changes in plant growth and health in response to environmental factors or developmental cues. Moreover, it allows researchers to conduct large experiments in a time- and cost-efficient manner. The TraitFinder is a digital phenotyping system developed by Phenospex (Heerlen, Netherlands) that measures plant morphological (e.g., digital biomass) and spectral (leaf light reflectance) information. Leaf reflectance is presented as five vegetation indices (e.g., normalized difference vegetation index). Methods: This project evaluated nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P), and potassium (K) deficiency in greenhouse grown ornamental and vegetable plants using the TraitFinder. Plant species included celosia, coleus, marigold, petunia, and tomato. Plants were fertilized with a complete Hoagland's solution (control), and three modified solutions: Hoagland's solution without nitrogen (-N), phosphorus (-P), or potassium (-K). Each plant species was evaluated separately with eight replicate plants per treatment, organized as a randomized complete block design. Results: Treatment with -N, -P, and -K solutions resulted in reduced vegetative growth and decreased concentration of the corresponding macronutrient in leaf tissue for all species evaluated. We observed that the presence of flowers would negatively affect calculations of the vegetation indices due to their distinct spectral properties; therefore, flowers must be excluded to accurately quantify plant health parameters. In general, we observed a common trend where GLI (green leaf index) and NDVI (normalized difference vegetation index) decreased, and NPCI (normalized pigment chlorophyll index) and PSRI (plant senescence reflectance index) increased in response to macronutrient deficiency. The measure of GLI, NDVI, NPCI, and PSRI were different from the control plants, but these observations were dependent on the nutrient deficiency and species tested. Discussion: Our results underscore the importance of accounting for species-specific spectral signatures when assessing plant responses to nutrient deficiencies. This project also provides reference values for interpreting vegetation indices, offering valuable guidance for scientists implementing digital phenotyping in their experimental protocols. Digital phenotyping can significantly improve experimental throughput and provide quantitative insights into plant health.
Plant photosynthesis operates under naturally fluctuating light, yet its dynamic responses across timescales remain incompletely understood. Here, we apply sinusoidal light modulation as a controlled periodic input and analyze the response in the frequency domain, enabling quantitative system identification of photosynthetic dynamics. Using a minimal biochemical model of photosynthetic electron transport and regulation, we show that photosynthetic performance under fluctuating light differs systematically from that under constant illumination, even when the mean photon flux density is identical. Large-amplitude oscillations generate higher harmonics and alter time-averaged chlorophyll fluorescence, oxygen evolution, and non-photochemical quenching (NPQ), demonstrating that fluctuating light acts not merely as a perturbation but as a distinct physiological regime. For sufficiently small perturbations, the system behaves approximately linearly and can be characterized by transfer functions and Bode plots. We identify two dynamic regimes separated by a characteristic timescale of approximately 10 s. In the high-frequency domain, the response is governed by constitutive photochemical processes and reflects local steady-state properties, including the redox state of the plastoquinone pool. In the low-frequency domain, adaptive regulatory feedback dominates, particularly NPQ, which reshapes both the amplitude and phase of the photosynthetic response. Characteristic frequency-response features, including gain transitions and phase extrema, provide direct information about physiologically relevant quantities such as effective relaxation times and regulatory coupling strengths. We further introduce the concept of regulation fingerprints, defined as ratios of transfer functions between regulated and unregulated systems. These fingerprints reveal distinct spectral signatures of fast PsbS-dependent and slower zeaxanthin-dependent NPQ, enabling their quantitative separation and providing experimentally testable predictions for regulatory dynamics. Together, these results establish frequency-domain analysis as a general framework for probing, identifying, and testing the dynamic regulation of photosynthesis under fluctuating light. More broadly, they suggest that fluctuating illumination, often regarded as experimental noise, can instead serve as a structured probe of photosynthetic function in both laboratory and field environments.
X-ray / CTRootMorphology / geometry measurement2D/3D reconstructionRoot system architecture
Summary Plant–microbe interactions are inherently spatial, yet the physical structure of the soil and rhizosphere is rarely treated as a mechanistic variable in experimental design. X‐ray computed tomography (X‐ray CT) enables nondestructive, three‐dimensional, and time‐resolved imaging of intact root–soil systems, providing direct access to the structural context in which plant–microbe interactions occur. Rather than a secondary imaging technique, X‐ray CT can offer a wealth of data as a primary experimental platform for future plant–microbe research. Here, we highlight key structural traits that X‐ray CT can quantify and discuss how they may shape microbial behaviour, plant immune responses, and disease outcomes. We expand on how X‐ray CT could be employed in future to provide a framework to disentangle direct microbial effects from indirect, structure‐mediated feedbacks. For breeding and management, it could enable selection for root traits and soil practices that engineer favourable microhabitats rather than targeting organisms in isolation. Despite this potential, broader adoption will require overcoming current limitations related to access to instrumentation, analytical expertise, and the integration of structural data with biological measurements. Overall, we suggest that resolving these issues will enable the integration of X‐ray CT‐derived structure with molecular, microbiome, and modelling approaches to enable the development of digital rhizospheres, offering a pathway from descriptive observations to predictive, structure‐aware in silico frameworks in plant–microbe research.
Rice is a staple food and a major source of calories for much of the global population. With the global population continuing to rise, breeding high-yielding rice cultivars is critical for future food security. Grain size is a key trait directly related to rice yield. In this study, QTL mapping was conducted using both phenotypic data collected with Vernier calipers and image-based phenotyping. All QTLs identified through caliper measurements were also detected using image data, which allowed for more precise localization with higher LOD scores. Grain size-related QTLs were identified on chromosomes 3, 5, 6, and 7, including major genes such as GS3, qSW5, and GW7. A novel QTL region between markers RM586 and RM1163 on chromosome 6 was identified, which has not been previously reported. Introgression of this region positively affected grain length, and an additive effect was observed when combined with qGL3. Within the RM586-RM1163 region, 16 open reading frames (ORFs) were annotated, and Gene Ontology (GO) analysis suggested their roles in regulating cellular structures and organelle functions during grain development. Among these, OsGSq6 showed a significant increase in expression from the panicle formation stage to the heading stage. Fifteen SNPs were identified within the gene, resulting in 11 distinct haplotypes, several of which were predominantly found in indica rice. OsGSq6 encodes a phosphotyrosyl phosphatase activator, suggesting its role in grain development. Image-based phenotyping also enabled the detection of varietal admixtures, contributing to improved genetic purity. This approach offers a promising strategy for enhancing rice breeding precision.
Autumn-winter forage scarcity limits subtropical livestock systems. This study aimed to: (1) develop a segregating F 1 population from parents contrasting in autumn-winter biomass yield (WBY) in tetraploid Paspalum notatum ; (2) estimate phenotypic and genetic variability for WBY across environments; and (3) evaluate the relationship between WBY and spring-summer biomass yield (SBY), and the feasibility of unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV)-derived vegetation indices as non-destructive estimators of WBY. A population of 182 tetraploid F 1 hybrids was evaluated at two sites in Corrientes Province, Argentina (2022-2024). WBY exhibited wide genotypic variability across locations and years ( p H 2 ) ranged from 0.41 to 0.64, reflecting sensitivity to the thermal and moisture conditions of each environment. WBY showed a positive, moderate association with SBY ( R 2 = 0.20-0.26), indicating that selection for cool-season yield does not compromise summer productivity. The Normalized Difference Red Edge Index (NDRE) was the most robust WBY predictor ( R 2 up to 0.67 at MES-2022 vs. 0.58-0.59 for ARVI, GNDVI and NDVI at the same site-year), though predictive accuracy varied with environmental conditions. The results demonstrate substantial and exploitable genetic variation for cool-season forage yield in P. notatum .
Chlorophyll content in maize leaves is an important indicator of the physiological status and nutritional conditions of the crop. Rapid and cost-effective monitoring of chlorophyll is therefore essential for precision agriculture. However, spectral measurement instruments are expensive and difficult to deploy widely in field environments. In practical applications, low-cost multispectral sensors require the selection of a small number of informative spectral bands while maintaining prediction accuracy. In this study, an adaptive spectral band optimization strategy integrating the least absolute shrinkage and selection operator (LASSO) and an improved artificial rabbits optimization (IARO) was proposed to identify compact band subsets for chlorophyll estimation. The spectral data of maize leaves were preprocessed using Savitzky-Golay smoothing (SG) and Standard Normal Variate Transformation (SNV). Feature bands were selected using SPA, Pearson correlation, LASSO, and the proposed LASSO-IARO method, and predictive models were developed using partial least squares regression (PLSR) and support vector regression (SVR). Results showed that LASSO-IARO reduced the number of selected bands by 42.86-73.33% compared with conventional methods while maintaining comparable prediction accuracy. The LASSO-IARO-PLSR model achieved a coefficient of determination ( R 2 ) of 0.81 with a root mean square error (RMSE) value of 2.01 on the testing set. The optimized band subset (517 nm, 520 nm, 696 nm, and 730 nm) provides candidate wavelengths for designing low-cost multispectral sensors for in-field chlorophyll monitoring.